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PRIVATE LIBRAR RICHARD C. HAL'.
MflMMl
CYCLOP.4 blA
V
OF
THEOLOGICAL, AND ECCLESIASTICAL
-^•.
LITERATURE.
PREPARED BY
THE REV. JOHN M'CLINTOCK, D.D.,
AND
JAMES STRONG, S.T.D. Vol. V^— K, L, Mc.
PRIVATE UBRARY f^'CHARD C kALVERSOK
NEW YORK:
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
FRANKLIN SQUARE.
* 18 8 2,
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1873, by
HARPER & BROTHERS,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
PREFACE TO VOL. V.
Op this volume, as of that which immediately preceded it, the editorial responsi- bility and general supervision have rested upon Dr. Strong. He has, however, been greatly aided by Professor Wormax, who has continued to assist in the department left incomplete by the late Dr. McClintock. Professor Schem has likewise rendered important aid, chiefly in national history and statistics. The comprehensive scope and detailed character of the work, as a trustworthy book of reference on all relig- ious topics, have been maintained Avithout change, except such improvements as ex- perience in its progress has suggested. Increased attention has been given to the non-Christian religions and nationalities, as the advance of missionary, scientific, and mercantile exploration has made them more and more the subjects of public notice and interest. The vocabulary, in the branches of philosophy, ethics, and memoirs, will also be found to be somewhat more full, and, we trust, not less satisfactory, than heretofore.
The contributions of the numerous assistants and special collaborators are indicated by their initials appended to their respective articles. The following is a complete list of contributors to this volume only. Other eminent names, both in this country and abroad, have been secured for the future volumes, and will be announced in due time.
S. L. B.— The Kev. S. L. Baldwin, A.M., missionary to China. C. R. B.— The Rev. C. R. Barnes, A.M., Jersey City, N. J.
C. B. — Charles Bruchhausen, IVLD., Ph.D., Norwich, N. Y. J. K. B.— The Rev. J. K. Burr, D.D., Hoboken, N. J.
H. A. B. — Professor H. A. Buttz, A.jNI., of the Drew Theological Seminary.
T. W. C— The Rev. T. W. Chambers, D.D., New York City.
G. R. C— The Rev. George R. Crooks, D.D., editor of the Methodist, New York.
D. D. — The Rev. Daniel Devinne, Morrisania, New York.
E. H. G.— Professor E. H. Gillett, D.D., of the University of the City of New York.
D. R. G.— The Rev. D. R. Godwin, D.D., of the Protestant Episcopal Divinity School, Philadelphia, Pa.
J. T. G. — The Rev. J. T. Gracey, A.M., missionary editor of the Northern Christian Advocate.
J. D. H.— J. D. Hammond, A.B., of the Drew Theological Seminary.
G. F. H.— Professor George F. Holjies, LL.D., of the University of Virginia.
R. II.— The Rev. R. Hutcheson, A.M., Washington, Iowa.
D. P. K. — Professor D. P. Kidder, D.D., of the Drew Theological Seminary.
C. P. K. — Professor Charles P. Krautii, D.D., of the Lutheran Divinity School, Philadelphia, Pa.
J. F. M.— The Rev. J. F. Marlay, Dayton, Ohio.
G. M.— The Rev. George Miller, B.D., Wallpack Centre, N. J.
E. B. O.— The Rev. E. B. Otheman, A.M., Rhinebeck, N. Y. N. P.— President Noah Porter, D.D., LL.D., of Yale College. J. N. P. — Mr. Jules N. Proeschel, late of Paris, France,
E. de P.— The Rev. E. de Puy, AM., New York City.
J. D. R.— The Rev. J. D. Rose, M.D., Ph.D., Summit, N. J.
A. J. S. — Professor A. J. Schem, editor of the Dmtsch-amerikanisches Conversalions-Lexikon.
E. de S. — The Right Rev. E. de Schweinitz, D.D., bishop of the Moravian Church, Bethlehem, Pa.
L. E. S. — Professor L. E. Smith, D.D., of the Exmniner and Chronicle, New York.
J. L. S.— The Rev. J. L. Sooy, A.B., Titusville, N. J.
M. L. S.— The late Professor M. L. Stoever, D.D., of Pennsylvania College.
G. L. T.— The Rev. George L. Taylor, A.M., Hempstead, L. L
W. J. R. T.— The Rev. W. J. R. Taylor, D.D., Newark, N. J.
N. v.— The Rev. N. Vansant, of the Newark Conference.
C. W. — Professor C. Walker, D.D., of the Theological Seminary, Alexandria, Va.
T. D. W.— The Rev. Theodore D. Woolsey, D.D., late president of Yale College.
J. H. W. — Professor J. H. Worjian, A.M., late librarian of the Drew Theological Seminary.
LIST OF WOOD-CUTS IN VOL.V.
The Kaaba nt Mecca Page 1
Figniea on Rocks at Kanah 11
Ancient Egyptian Key 59
Interior of Khan at Aleppo 09
Month of the Kishon Ill
English Merlin 113
Red Kite 113
Fignre of Kneph 1'25
Ancient Etruscan Knife 126
Ancient Egyptian Knives 126
Varions Ancient Knives 126
Egyptian Flint Knives 127
Egyptian Slanghtering-knives 127
Ancient Assyrian Knives 127
Border of Assyrian Slab 135
Krishna trampling on the Serpent. 161
Serpent biting Krishna's Heel 165
Roman Labarum 177
Monogram of Christ 177
Attack of Lachish by Assyrians. . . ISl Assyrian Ground-plan of Lachish. ISl Jewish Captives from Lachish. . .. 1S2
Ancient Egyptian Ladder 190
Ancient Assyrian Ladders 191
Figure of the Dalai Lama 202
Agnus Dei 206^
AncientEgyptian Cylindrical Lamp 220
Bronze Lamp and Stand 221
Various Ancient Egyptian Lamps. 221
Ancient Assyrian Lamps 221
Classical Hand-lamps 221
Classical Hanging Lamps 221
Oriental Wedding Lantern 222
Oriental Hanging Lamps 222
Enlarged View of the Kandll 222
Egyptian Knives and Lancets 225
Lancet-window 225
Ancient Roman Lantern 235
Modern Oriental Lantern 235j
Ancient Egyptian Lantern 235'
Ordinary Eastern Lantern 235
Architectural Lantern of St. Helen's 235
Copper Coin of Laodicea 237
The Hoopoe 240,
The Pewit Page 246
Lattice Window at Cairo 26S
Lattice-work at Cairo 269
Specimen of the Laudian MS 275
Lavatory at Selby 2S0
The Laver, after Theuius 2S1
The Laver, according to Paine 282
Costume of a Lazarist 300
Ancient Egyptians working in
Leather. .' SOS
View of Lebanon 310
A suppliant Native of Lebanon... 314
Felling Trees on Lebanon 314
Lectern at Ramsay Church 317
The Leek 324
Trigonella Fcenuvi-Grcecum 324
Ancient Legionary Soldiers 329
Ancient Egyptians cooking Len-
tiles 347
The Lentile 34S
Syrian Panther 370
Levitical City, Diagram I, a 394
Levitical City, Diagram I, 6 394
Levitical City, Diagram II 394
Levitical City, Diagram III 394
Levitical City, Diagram IV 394
Levitical City, Diagram V 395
Levitical City, Diagram VI, ot 395
Levitical City, Diagram VI, b 395
Egyptian Gnat magnified 422
Aquilaria Aijallochum 428
The Water-lily 432
White Lily 433
Scarlet Martagou 434
African Lion 446
Claw in Lion's Tail 446
Persian Lion 447
Lion at Arban 447
Lion let out of a Cage 447
Egyptian Hunting with a Lion — 448
A Lion devouring a Man 448
Ancient Egyptian Palanquin 455
Modern Persian Palanquin 455
Syrian Double Palanquin 455
Camel bearing the Hodaj Page 4.55
Chamceleo Vulgaris 469
Lacerta Stellio 470
Ancient Roman Bread 472
Ancient Egyptian Bread 472
Modern Egyptian wooden Lock. . . 477
(Edipoda Migrator ia 484
Acridiuvi Lineola 485
Acridiuvi Peregrinum 485
Locust flying 485
Dried Locusts 486
Locust-eating Bird 486
"Lot's Wife" 521
Coin of Lycia 584
Lych-gate at Blackford Church.. . . 584 Persepolitau Emblem of Macedon. 617
Coins of Macedonia 61S
Mosque at Hebron 021
Ancient Egyptian Cuirass 059
Jews' Mallow 684
Sea-purslane 684
Vicinity of Abraham's Cemeterv.. 6ST
Map of Mauasseh— East 090
Map of Manasseh— West 691
A tro])a Mandragora Ojjicinarum. . . 700
Tamarix Gallica 712
A Ihagi Maurorum 712
Modern Egyptian Mantle 718
Specimen of Odessa MS 722
Specimens of Greek MSS 72S
Maronite Sheik and Wife 769
Table of Prohibited Marriages 779
Mohammedan Bridal Procession, . 79T
Figure of Mars 812
Mary Queen of Scots 849
Rock of Massada 850
Mask Corbel 853
Masonry at Hebron 858
Pistacia Lentisciis 871
Mater Dolorosa ( 872
Ancient Egyptian Hoes 902
Ancient Throw-sticks 903
Coin of Masimin 1 916
Coin of Masimin II 917
i^
C YC L 0 P^ D I A
OF
BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL, AND ECCLESIASTICAL LITERATUKE.
K.
Kaab, a celebrated Arabian poet, author of one of the seven poems which were suspended in tlie temple of IMecca, was originally a strenuous opponent of Mo- hammed, whose doctrines and person he satirized. He, however, recanted by writing a poem in honor of the prophet. As a reward, the prophet gave him his green mantle, which one of the descendants of Kaab sold for ten thousand pieces of silver. He died in 602.
Kaaba (Arabic Al-Kaahah, "Square House," or, more properly, now Beit-Alluh, "House of God") is the name of an oblong stone building inclosed in the great mosque at Mecca. From time immemorial tra- dition makes Mecca to have been a place of pilgrimage from all parts of Arabia " within a circuit of a thousand miles, interrupted only by the sea. The Kaaba, the Black Stone, and other concomitants of worship at !Mec- ca have a similar antiquity" (Muir, Mahomet, i, 211). There are intimations of the Kaaba to be found in He- rodotus and Diodorus Sicidus. It certainly existed be- fore the Christian rera (Sir W. Jones, Works, x, 35G ; BI. C. de Percival, i, 74 ; ii, 532). See Mecca.
Oriffin ami Histoi-y. — IMr. Muir (ii, 34) thinks the , Kaaba to be of Yemen origin, and to have been connect- \'l with the systems of idolatry prevalent in the south- eX' jiortion of the Arabian ])eninsiUa. The Mussulmans say that Adam first worshipped on this spot, after his expulsion from Paradise, in a tent sent down from heav- en for this purpose. Seth substituted for the tcift a structure of clay and stone, which was, however, de- stroyed by the Deluge, but afterwards rebuilt by Abra- ham and Ishmael. But this tradition may have arisen in connection with a traditional Jewish inscription found on a stone in the Kaaba about forty years before Jloham- med, and which would suggest the possibility that some remote Abrahamic tribe acquainted Avith SjTiac may have been at an early period associated with aboriginal Ai-abs in the erection of the Kaaba. Some have sup- posed it to have been devoted to the worship of Saturn (Zohal). Certain it is that it has been the holy em- blem at different periods of four different faiths. Sa- bxan, Hindu, Gueber, and Moslem have all held it ia veneration (Burton, iii, IGO). According to tlie Koran, it is " tliC ancient house," the first house built and ap- pointecl for God's worship (Sale's Koi-an, p. 276), and the guardianship of it was by express revelation given to Othman (Sale, p. 167).
It was originally without a roof, and, having suffered material damage by a flood, was considered to be in danger of falling. The treasures it contained were con- sidered insecure, and some of them were alleged to have been stolen. In A.D. 605 Mohammed rebuilt the edi- fice, but in A.D. 1626 it was again destroyed by a great torrent, and in A.D. 1627 was rebuilt substantially after its present form.
Slructwe. — It stands now on a base about two feet in v.— A
height, which is a sharp inclined plane ; and, as the roof is fiat, the buililing becomes an irregular cube, the sides of which vary from forty to fifty feet in height, and eighteen by fourteen paces in extent. It is inclosed by a wall some two hundred and fifty paces on two sides, and two hundred paces on the others.
The Kaaba has but one door, which is raised some four or five feet from the ground, and is reached hv a ladder. It is allowed to be entered only two or three times a year, though it is reputed to be susceptible of a money influence, and to be opened clandestinely much more frequently. The door is wholly coated with sil- ver, and has gilt ornaments. Wax candles are Ijurned before it nightly, together with perfuming-pans contain- ing musk, aloes, etc., and other odorous substances.
The Kaaba at Mecca.
Black Stone. — The most important feature of the Ka- aba is the " Black Stone," which is inserted in the north-
KAABA
KADESH
east comer oi the building, at the height of four or five feet from the ground. It is in shape an irregular oval, about seven inches in diameter. Tliere are various opinions as to the nature of this stone. Burckhardt supposes it to be a " lava" stone. Others suggest that it is an aerolite. Muir calls it " a fragment of volcanic salts sprinkled with colored crj^stals, and varied red feldspatli upon a dark black ground like a coal, one pro- tuberance being reddish." IJurckhardt thinks it looks as if it had been broken into several pieces and cement- ed. He says, howe\'er, that it is difficult to determine the quality of it, because it is so worn by the millions of kisses and touches of the pilgrims. Muir says it is worn '• until it is uneven, and has a muscular appear- ance." It is bordered all round with a large plate of silver about a foot broad. The part or angle exposed is semicircular. So much of the merit of the Kaaba de- pends on this stone that at the time of the rebuilding of the edifice by Mohammed a great contest arose be- tween the families of the Koreish for the honor of plac- ing it in the new structure. Mohammed settled this dispute by placing it on his own mantle, and causing a chief of each tribe to lift it, and then put it himself in its position in the Kaaba. See Kokeish. Pilgrims, on arrival at IVIecca, proceeding to the Kaaba and mak- ing the circuit of it, start at the corner where the black stone is inserted.
Fabulous stories abound relative to the black stone, such as that it was originally white, but became black because of the silent and unseen tears which it wept on account of the sins ofwien. This, however, only affect- ed its exterior. Others attribute its change of color to the innum(*rable touches and kisses of the pilgrims. It is one of the precious stones of Paradise, which came to earth with Adam, and was miraculously preserved diu-- ing the flood, and brought back to INIecca by the angel Gabriel, and given to Abraham to build originally in the Kaaba. It was taken at one time by the Karma- thians (q. v.), who refused to release it for five thousand pieces of gold, but they finally restored it.
Veilinrj. — There is a custom, very remote in its origin, of covering the outside of the Kaaba with a veil, which has at various times been made of Yemen cloth, of Egyptian linen, of red brocade, and of black silk. To supply it became at one time a sign of royalty, and it was accordingly furnished by the caliph of Egypt, and later by the Turkish sultan. There seems to be some conflict of authorities about some things pertaining to the custom of veiling. About one third from the top of the veil is a band about two feet in width, embroi- dered with texts from the Koran in gilt letters (see Muir, ii, 32 ; Burton, iii, 295, 300).
Admission. — Since the ninth year of the Hegira an order has obtained that none but Islamites shall be ad- mitted to the Kaaba. Formerly the General Assembly of Ocadh convened at Mecca. In it poets contested for a. whole month for prizes, and those poems to which prizes were from time to time a^\'arded were by public order written in letters of gold on Egj^itian silk, and hung up in the Kaaba (Sale, p. 20).
Other Fetiinres. — In the south-east corner of the Ka- aba is a smaller stone, less venerated than the above, being touched only, and not kissed, by those walking round the Kaaba. On the north side of the Kaaba is a slight hollow, large enough to admit three persons, where it is specially meritorious to pray, it being the place where Abraham and Ishmael kneaded chalk and mud for tlie original structure. From the west side of the Kaaba a water-spout carries rain from the roof and pours it on the reputed grave of Ishmael, and pilgrims are not unfrequently seen " fighting to catch it." This water-spout is said to be of i)ure gold, and is four feet in length and about six inches in width. It is declared to have lieen taken to the Kaaba A.II. 981. The pave- ment round the Kaaba is a mosaic of many colored stones, and was laid in A.H. ^ii\. Tliere is on one side of tlie Kaaba a semicircidar wall, which is scarcely less sacred
than the Kaaba itself. The walk round the Kaaba is outside this wall, but the closer to it the better. This wall is entitled El Ilattim, and is of solid stone, five teet in height and four feet in thickness. It is incased in wliite marble, and inscribed with prayers. The Kaaba has a double roof, supported by pillars of aloe-wood, and it is said that no bird ever rests upon it. The whole building is surrounded by an inclosure of columns, out- side which there are found three oratories, or places of devotion for different sects; also the eilifice containing the well Zem-Zem, the cupola of Abbas, and the Treas- ury. All these are further inclosed by a splendid colon- nade, surmounted by cupolas, steeples, spires, crescents, all gilded and adorned with lamps, which shed a briUiant lustre at night. These surroundings, between M-hich and the Kaaba run seven paved causeways, were first devised by Omar for the better preservation of the Ka- aba itself. According to Burckhardt, the same holy Kaaba is the scene of such indecencies as cannot with propriety be particularized ; indecencies wliich are prac- ticed not only with impunity, but publicly and without a blush. See Mohajimedaxisji.
Since the second year of the Hegira the Kaaba has been for the Mussidman world the Kebluh. or place to- wards which all Moslems turn in prayer. See Keblah.
See Nari-ative of a nigrimarje io El Medinah and J1/ecc«,byRichardF. Burton, vol. iii (Loud. 1855)-; Sale's Koran ; Muir, Life of Mahomet,\o\. ii and iii (London, 1858); Sprenger, /v//e q/jl/o/iome^, ii, 7; 'Lay . De iempli Meccani orifjine (Berlin, 1840, 4to). (J. T. G.)
Kaath. See Pelicax.
Kabbala. See Cabala.
Kabiler is the name of a nephew of Brahma, and one of India's greatest saints. His father was Karta- men, the ancestor of the Brahmin race. It is in. the person of this Hindu that Vishnu took the form of man some twenty-four different times. See YoUmer, Wor- tevhuch der Mytholofjie, p. 987.
Kab'zeel (Ileb. Kuhtseel', ?NS^p, yaihering of God. i. e. perhaps confluence of waters; Sept. Kfl/jiT€)jX in Joshua, elsewhere KajSaamjX v. r. Ko/3f irt /;\, etc.), a town on the extreme south of Judah, near Idunii^a, and therefore probably included witliin the territory of Sim- eon (.Josh. XV, 21) ; the native place of Benaiah (son of Jehoiada), one of David's chief warriors (2 Sam. xxiii, 20: 1 Chron. xi, 22). It was inhabited after the cap- tivit}' under the similar name of Jekabzeel (Neh. xi, 25). Its locality can only be conjectured as being near the edge of the Ghor, south of the Dead Sea (see Ma- sius. Comment, on Josh, ad loc). The name and vicin- ity are probably stiU represented by the wady El-Ku- seib, a small winter torrent running into the Dead Sea from the south (Robinson, Researches, ii, 497). Here the boundaries of Palestine, Edom, and Moab would con- verge, as is implied in the above Scripture references, and the region is still the resort of wild animals (Lynch, Jordan, p. 319; De Saulcy, Dead Sea, i, 298), and char- acterized by a deep fall of snow in winter (Burckhardt, Sjiria, p. 402), as is stated in the account of Beuaiah's adventure with the lion.
Ka'des.(Kf(c/;c\ a town of Palestine, apparently in the south (Judith i,9) ; probably the same as Kadesh- BAKNEA (q. v.).
Ka'desh (Heb. Kadesh', 'iJ'y^^, holy, perhaps as be- ing the site of some ancient oracle [compare the early equivalent name "fount of judgment"], Gen. xiv, 7; xvi, 14; XX, 1 ; Numb, xiii, 2(i ; xx, 1, 14, IG, 22; xxvii, 14; xxxiii, 36, 37; Deut. i,46; xxxii, 51; Judg. xi, 16, 17; Psa. xxix,8; Ezek. xlvii, 19 ; xlviii,28; Sept. Ko- C)]i:, but in Ezek. xlvii, 19, Kaclic v. r. Koo////) or, more fully, K A'DESH-BAK'NEA (Hebrew Kadesh '-Barne'd, "3"ia w"|1p, the latter portion of the name being re- garded by Simonis^ Lex. s. v., as compounded of "i3, open country, and i"_3, icandering ; Numb, xxxii, 8; xxiv, 4;
KADESH
KADI
Deut. i,2,19; ii,14; ix,23; Josh, x, 41; xiv,(;,7; xv,3; Sept. K-dSi]Q [roi)] Booj'//), a site on the south-eastern border of the Promised Land, towards Edora, of much in- terest as being the point at whicli the Israelites twice encamped (their nineteentli and thirty-seventh stations) Avith the intention of entering Palestine, and from which they were twice sent back ; the tirst time in pursuance of their sentence to wander forty years in the wilder- ness, and tlie second time from the refusal of the king of Edom to permit a passage through his territories. It is proliable that the term " Kadesh," though applied to signify a "city," yet had also a wider application to a region, in which Kadesh -meribah certainly, and Ka- desh-barnea probably, indicate a precise spot. Thus Kadesli appears as a limit eastward of the same tract which was limited westward by Shur (Gen. xx, 1). Shur is possibly the same as Sihor, " which is before Egypt" (xxv, 18 ; Josh, xiii, 3 ; Jer. ii, 18), and was the first jiortion of the wilderness on wliich the people emerged from the passage of the Ked Sea. See Shur. "Be- tween Kadesh and Bered" is another indication of the site of Kadesh as an eastern limit (Gen. xvi, 14), for the point so fixed is " the fountain on the way to Shur" (v, 7), and the range of limits is narrowed by selecting the western one not so far to the west, while the eastern one, Kadesh, is unchanged. Again, we have Kadesh as the point to which the foray of Chedorlaomer " return- ed"— a word which does not imply that they had previ- ously visited it, but that it lay in the direction, as view- ed from Mount Seir and Paran, mentioned next before it, which was that of the point from which Chedorlao- mer had come, viz. the north. Chedorlaomer, it seems, coming down by tlie eastern shore of the Dead Sea, smote the Zuzims (Amnion, Gen. xiv, 5; Deut. ii, 20), and the Emims (Moab, Deut. ii, 11), and the Horites in Mount Seir, to the south of that sea, luito " El-Paran that is by the wilderness." He drove these Horites over the Arabah into the Et-Tlh region. Then " re- turned," i. e. went northward to Kadesh and Ilazezon Tamar, or Engedi (comp. Gen. xiv, 7 ; 2 Chron. xx, 2). It was from Kadesh that the spies entered Palestine bj' ascending the mountains : and the murmuring Israelites, afterwards attempting to do the same, \vere driven back by the Amalekites and Canaanites, and afterwards ap- parently by the king of Arad, as far as Ilormah, then called Zephath (Numb, xiii, 17 ; xiv, 40-45 ; xxi, 1-3 ; Deut. i, 41-44 ; compare Judg. i, 7). There was also at Kadesh a fountain (Ex-jiishpat) mentioned long be- fore the exode of the Israelites (Gen. xiv, 7) ; and the miraculous supply of water took place only on the sec- ond visit, which implies that at the first there was no lack of this necessary article. In memory of the mur- murs of the Israelites, this fountain afterwards bore the name of " the Waters of Meribah" (Deut. xxxii, 51). The adjacent desert was called the "Wilderness of Ka- desh" (Psa. xxix, 8). On the second visit to this place iMiriam died there, and jMoses sent messengers to the king of Edom, informing him that they were in Kadesh, a city in the uttermost part of his border, and asking leave to pass through his country, so as to continue their course round jMoal), and approach Palestine from the east. This Edom rei'used, and the Israelites accord- ingly marched to Mount Ilor, where Aaron died; and then along the Arabah (desert of Zin) to the Red Sea (Numb. XX, 14-29). The name of Kadesh again occurs in describing the southern quarter of Judah, tlie line de- fining which is drawn "from the shore of the Salt Sea, from the bay that looked southward; and it went out to the south side of Akrabbim, and passed along to Zin, and ascended up on the south side to Kadesh-barnea" (Josh. XV, 1-3 ; compare Numb, xxxiv, 3, 4). In Gen. xiv, 7 Kadesh is connected with Tamar, or Hazezon Ta- mar, just as we find these two in the cf)mparativcly late book of Ezeldel, as designed to mark the southern bor- der of Judah, drawn through them and terminating sea- ward at the " river to," or " towards the great sea" (Ezek. xlvii, 19; xlviii, 28). There is one objection to
this view. The Kadesh from which the spies were sent was in t/ie wilderness of Paran (Numb, xiii, 26); Ka- desh-barnea was in the wilderness of Zin (xx, 1). This is easily removed. Paran was the general name for the whole desert west of the Arabah, extending from Pales- tine to Sinai (Gen. xxi, 21 ; Numb, x, 12 ; xii, 10 ; 1 Sam. xxv, 1). It even seems to have included the Ar- abah, reaching to the very base of Mount Seir (Gen. xiv, G). Zin was a specific name for that part of the Arabah which bordered on Edom and Palestine (Numb, xiii, 21 ; xxxiv, 3, 4 ; Josh, xv, 1-3). If Kadesh was sit- uated on the western side of the Arabah, then it might be reckoned either to Paran or to Zin ; or, if we agree with Keil, Delitzsch, and others (Keil on Josh, x), that Paran was the general name for the whole, and Zin the specific name of a portion, the objection is removed at once. — Kitto; Smith. Compare Kedesii, 1.
To meet these various indications, two places by the name of Kadesh were formerly supposed to exist : but the editor of the Pictorial Bible has shown (note on Numb. XX, 1) that a single Kadesh would answer all the conditions, if placed on the western border of the Arabah, opposite Mt. Hon Accordingly, Dr. Robinson locates it ^t Ain el-Weheh, which he argues coincides with all the circumstances mentioned (^Researches, ii, 168). But this is somewhat too distant from the pass es-Sufa, v/hich is probably the Zephath where the Isra- elites encountered the Canaanites, and on this account Raumer has with greater plausibility fixed Kadesh at Ain es-IIasb (Der Zug der Israeliten, Leipz. 1843, p. 9 sq.). See Exode. Mr. Rowlands, who travelled through this region in 1842, thinks he discovered Kadesh (as weU as numerous other ancient localities in this vicinity) at a place which he calls Ain Kudes (Williams's Holy City, 2d edit., i, 407). A writer in Fairbairn's Dictionary ar- gues at length in favor of this position at Ain Gades, but all his reasoning partakes of the character of special pleading, and rests upon inconclusive grounds. His only real argument is that Kadesh appears to have lain be- tween wady Feiran (Paran) and Engedi (Hazezon-ta- niar), on Chedorlaomer's route (Gen. xiv, 7); but that route is given so vaguely that we can lay no particular stress upon it. The other arguments even tell the other way; especially do the passages adduced go to show that Kadesh was at the extreme east from Shur (Gen. xx, 1) and el-Arish (Numb, xxxiv, 5 ; Josh, xv, 5), and the same was the case with Zin (Numb, xiii, 21 ; xxxiii,30). This position also is avowedly not only inconsistent with the location of Huzeroth at Ain Iludheirah, but even re- quires us to enlarge the borders of Edom far to the west (Numb. XX, 10), and actually to remove Mt. Hor from its well-defined traditionary situation (Deut. i, 2). Capt. Palmer has more lately visited the site thus assumed for Kadesh, and particularly describes it {Quart. Statement of the "Palestine Exploration Fund," Jan. 1871, p. 20 sq.) as "consisting of three springs, or rather shallow- pools, one of them overflowing in the rainy season ;" but his advocacy for the identity adds no additional argu- ment. In fact, the agreement in the name is the only plea of any force. This is counterbalanced by the scrip- tural notices of the position of the place. See Dr. Rob- inson, in the Bihliotheca Sacra, 1840, p. 377 sq. ; also Palmer, Desert of Exodus, ^i. 280; comp. Kitto's Scrip- ture Lands, p. 78-82; Ritter. Krdkunde, xiv, 1077-10S9. Schwarz {Palestine, p. 23) endeavors, from Rabbinical au- thority, to locate Kadesh at a place named by him wady Bierin, about forty-five miles south of Gaza ; but his whole theory is imaginary, besides indicating a posi- tion too far west for this Kadesh, and requiring anotli- er for En-]\Iishpat (p. 214), which is stated by Euscbius and Jerome {Onomast. s. v. K(th]c, B«pi'»';, Cades) to have been in the vicinity of Mt. Hor. From this last statement Stanley (Sinai and Palestine, p. 95) unwar- rantably infers that Kadesh was identical with Petra.
Kadi (Arabic) is among the Mohammedans the title of an assistant judge of civil law, and, like the judge himself (niolla), is classed among the higher clergy, be-
KADKOD
KAFFRES
cause all civil law of the Mussulman is based on the Ko- ran. 8ee Koran.
Kadkod. See Agate.
Kad'miel (Heb. Kadmiel', SX'^^a'll?) ^''fore God, i. c. his servant; Sept. Kai'fiu'jX), one of the Levites who returned with Zerubbabel from the captivity (Neh. xii, 81, and assisted in the various reibrms of that period, being always named in connection with Jcshua (Ezra iii, 9 ; Neh. vii, 43: corap. Ezra iii, 9) ; sometimes only as a descendant in common of Hodaviah (Ezra ii,40 ; Neh. vii, 43 ; comp. Ezra iii, 9), but once as a son (Neh. xii, 24). The length of time over which these notices seem to extend (B.C. 53G-410) leads to the suspicion that they relate to two individuals (perhaps a brother and also a sun of the Levite Jeshua), one of whom may liave been concerned in the earlier events, and the other in the later.
I^ad'monite (Heb. Kadmoni', '^3b'7|2, eastern, as in Ezek. x, 19, etc., or J'ormei-, as in Ezek. xxxviii, 17, etc. ; only once of a nation, collect, in the sing.. Gen. xv, 19; Sept. K£t)/uiij'oIoi,A"ulg. Cedmoncei, A. V. '"Kadmon- ites"), the name of a Canaanitish tribe, who appear to I'.avc tlwelt in the north-east part of Palestine, under JMount Hermon, at the time that Abraham sojourned in the land, and are mentioned in a more than ordinaril|r full list of the aborigines of Canaan (Gen. xv, 19). As the name is derived from D'lJ?, Icedem, " east," it is sup- posed by Dr.AVells and others to denote a people situ- ated to the east of the Jordan, or, rather, that it was a term applied collectively, like "Orientals," to all the people living in the countries beyond that river. At least it may be a term of contrast with the more western Zidonians. As the term lik-ewise signifies ancient, it may designate the older or aboriginal races of that re- gion in' general, who were recognized as the earliest in origin. Both these explanations may be correct, as the Kadmonites are not elsewhere mentioned as a distinct nation ; and the subsequent discontinuance of the term, in the assigned acceptation, may easily be accounted for by the nations beyond the river having afterwards be- come more distinctly kno\^^^, so as to be mentioned by their several distinctive names. See Hivite. The reader may see much ingenious trifling respecting this name in Bochart (Canaan, i, 19) ; the substance of which is that Cadmus, the founder of Thebes, in Bceotia, was originallj' a Kadmonite, and that the name of his wife, Hermione, was derived from jNIount Hermon. By oth- ers the name Kadmonites has been extended as equiva- lent to " the children of the East" C^lp, '^.?2), i. c. those living beyond fhe Euphrates (Ewald, Isr. Gcsch. i, 300) [see Bene-Kedem], and Keland {Piih'.<:tiiia,j\ 94) has sought to identify them with the Nabatlireans of Ara- bia; but these were Ishmaelites. It was probably ap- plied collectively to various tribes, like the Saracens of the jNIiddle Ages or the Bedouins of modern times (Bit- ter, Erdkunde, xv, 138). According to Dr. Thomson, the name is still preserved among the Nusariyeh north of Tripoli, who have a tradition that their ancestors were expelled from Palestine by Joshua, and who seem in physiognomy and manners to belong to the most an- cient inhabitants of the country (Land and Bool; i, 24:2'). See Caxaamte.
Kadroma is the name of a Thibetian Jewish divin- ity. Strangely enough, the Darwinian theory seems to have been entertained at a date considerably anterior to our century, for this goddess the Thibetians claim to have belonged to the ape race, and, after marriage to an ape, to have become the mother of tlie entire popidation of Thibet. See "\'ollmer, Wortei-b. d. Mythol. p. 990.
Kaffres (from the Arabic Kafir, infidel, i. e. non-Mo- hammedan), a people in south-eastern Africa, who re- ceived tliis name from the Moorish navigators of the In- dian Ocean. AV'hen the Dutch colonists came in contact with the most southern tribe of the Kaffres, the Koosas, or Amalvosa, the Moorish name was given to them exclu-
sively, and in this restricted sense it is commonly used by the Dutch and English colonists. It is, however, well ascertained that not onlj' the tribes now commonly called Kaffres, but the Tambookies, Mam bookies, Zulus, Damaras, the inhabitants of Delagoa Bay, Mozambique, and the numerous Bechuana tribes who occupy the inte- rior of the continent to an extent as yet unexplored, are but subdivisions of one great family, allied in language, customs, and mode of life. The Kaffre languages (in the wider sense of the word) are divided (bj' Pr. Mtiller) into an Eastern, Middle, and Western group. The for- mer comprises, 1. the Kaft're languages (in the narrower sense of the word), embracing, besides the Kaffre proper, also the Zulu dialect; 2. the Zambesi languages, em- bracing the languages of the Barotse, Bayeye, and Ma- shona; 3. the languages of Zanzibar, embracing the lan- guages of the Kisuahih, Kinika, Kikamba, and the Ki- hian. The Middle group contains, 1. the Sechuana languages (Sesuto, Serolong, and Shlapi); 2. the Te- keza languages, embracing the languages of the Manco- losi, Matonga, and JIaloenga. The AVestern group con- tains, 1. the Bunda, Ilerero, and Londa languages; 2. the languages of Congo, Mpongwe, Dikele, Isuba, and Pernando Po. The Kaffre languages are sonorous, flexi- ble, and definite. The southern tribes have adopted the peculiar smacking sounds of the Hottentots, which fre- quently change the meaning of words. The govern- ment of the Kaffre tribes is feudal — an aristocracy of chiefs, acknowledging the supremacy of the sovereign, but, except on extraordinary occasions, acting inde- pendently of him. The general chief is the sovereign of the nation, and in a council of chiefs is very power- fid, and is looked upon by all the nobles and people with luibounded respect. The kraals (hamlets) gener- ally consist of a dozen low, conical huts, the diameter of which is no more than about ten feet, into which one has to creep through a low opening, closed during the night by trees. In the middle of the hut is a room for the cattle. Wars generallj^ arise out of the stealing of cattle. In personal appearance the Kaffres are a re- markably fine race of men. They are of dark brown color, have a beautiful and vigorous constitution, dark woolly hair, a lofty front, and bent nose like the Eu- ropeans, projecting cheek-bones like the Hottentots, thick lips like the negroes. Their beard is thin. The women are handsome and modest ; their clothing con- sists of cloaks of skin, while the men are almost naked. They have no national religion; tliere are some traces of a belief in a supreme being and in subordinate spir- its, but no kind of religious worship and no priests. They are very superstitious, and pay a high tribute to sorcerers. " They have no idea," says I'hilip {South Africa, i, 118), "of any man's dying except from hun- ger, violence, or witclicraft." Like many other savage tribes, they practice the worship of their ancestry, " They sacrifice and pray to their deceased relatives, although it woivld be asserting too much to say abso- lutely that they believe in the existence and the im- mortality of the soul. In fact, their belief seems to go no further than this, that the ghosts of the dead haunt for a certain time their previous dwelling-places, and either assist or ])lague the living. No special powers are attributed to them, and it Avould be a misnomer to call them deities" (comp. Lubbock, Primilice Condition of Man, N. Y. 1871, 8vo, ch. iv sq.). They practice cir- cumcision, but only as a custon), not as a religious rite. Polygamy is allowed, and as the heavy work is chiefly performed by the women, it has proved a great obstacle to the introduction of Christianity.
The various tribes of the Kaffre family are estimated by Rev. J. J. Preeman, secretary of the London Mis- sionary Society, at 2,000,000, spread from the eastern frontier of Cajie Colony beyond Delagoa Bay, and then across the whole continent, without break, to the Atlan- tic in latitude 20^. A part of the territory of the Kaf- fres, from which, ia particidar, constant raids were made into English territorv, was annexed to the British do-
KAGBOSSUM
KALDEROX
minions under the name of Queen Adelaide province. It was subsequently restored to the chiefs of the Kaffres; in 1847 it again became an Enfflish province, under the name of British Kaffraria, and King William's Town, on the Buffalo River, was made the capital and the mili- tary head-quarters. The capital has a popidation of 2760, the sea-port, East London, of 2510. The population of the towns consists chiefly of English and German S3t- tlers, while the country people are Kaffres. In 1857 the province numbered 3942 kraals, and had a population of 101,721, but a terrible famine, which was caused by a false prophet of the name of Umhlakasa, reduced it in 1858 to 1291 kraals, and a population of 5-^,186. In 1871 the province embraced about 3900 sq. miles, and a popula- tion of about 90,000. The British influence more and more extends over Kaffraria jiroper, which is situated between British Kaffraria and Natal, and embraces about 14,457 sq. miles and 100,000 inhabitants. North of Na- tal and the Transvaal republic extends the land of oth- er Kaffre tribes, the territory of which is estimated at 62,930 square miles, with a population of about 440,000. Cape Colony, according to the census of 1865, had a Kaf- fre population of 100,536.
As the Dutch government of Cape Colony was hos- tile to all Christian missions, the missions among the Kaffres did not begin until tlie government had passed under British rule. The Moravians, who then for the first time found the necessary protection for their re-es- tablished missions among the Hottentots [see Hottex- TOTs], extended in 1818 their labors also to the Kaffres, in particular to the tribes of the Fongus and Tambakis, whence in 1862 a station was established among tlie last named tribe of Independent Kaffraria. The mis- sionary Yon der Kemp, who in 1798 was sent out by the London Missionary Society, laid the foundation of the missions of this society among the Kaffres. The Wes- leyan missionaries have (since 1820) numerous stations in all parts of the Kaffre territory. Their missionaries have for a long time been almost the only ones who ven- tured to penetrate into tlio uncultivated districts of the free KafTres. The Free Church and the United Presby- terians of Scotland have a number of stations in British Kaffraria, and have begun to extend their labors to (in- dependent) Kaffraria, among the natives whom the Brit- ish government has induced to settle there. The Ber- lin missions have also, since 1834, established a number of stations in British Kaffraria. Tlie Anglican Church, which has bishops at Capetown (1847), (irahamstown (1853), and in the Orange Free State (1863), has sta- tions both in British and in Free Kaffraria, and is eager- ly intent upon extending its work. The Dutch Re- formed Church had done nothing for the Kaffres until the establishment of a special missionary board in 1863 (Synodale Zendings Comissiii in Zuyd Africa), which displays a great zeal in the establishment of missions among the pagan population. More recently the Ger- man Baptists have sent out missionaries to British Kaf- fraria. The Roman Catholic Church has also a few sta- tions in British Kaffraria. See Grundemann, Missions- atlas (2d number, Gotha, 1867); Newcomb, C/ycfo/iferfm of Missions; MoffaVs Soutke7-n Africa (Lond. 1842); T. B. Freeman's Tour in South Africa (Lond. 1857) ; Lich- tenstein. Travels in South Africa ; BurcheU, Travels in Southern Africa. (A. J. S.)
Kagbossum is the name of a crow which the Hin- dus assert embodies the soul of one of their celebrated sages ; some of them say even of Brahma himself. See Vollmer, WOrterb. d. Mythol. p. 991.
Kahanbarha, the Persian name for the period in which the world was created, and wliich in their cos- mogony, as in that of the Christian dispensation, covers six days ; but, like some» of our theorists, they say that each day of creation corresponds in length to a period of one month. See Zoroastuianism.
Kahler, Johannes, a Lutheran theologian of some note, was born at Wolmar, Hesse Cassel, Jan. 20, 1649,
and was educated at the University of Giessen. He began his lectures at that university in 1673 on the Car- tesian philosopiiy, and became one of its ablest expo- nents. In 1677 he was called as extraordinary professor of metaphysics to Rintein, and shortly after was pro- moted to the fidl or ordinary professorship. In 1683 he became also professor of theology. He died IMay 17, 1729. Kahler was highly esteemed by his contempo- raries, and enjoyed the confidence and good will of his colleagues to such a degree that he was chosen rector at six different elections. His writings, consisting mainly of dissertations on theology and philosophy, were col- lected and printed in 2 vols. 12mo. See Allgem. Hist. Lex. vol. iii, s. v. ; Jocher, Gelehrten Lexikon, vol. ii, s. v., gives a complete list of Kahler's productions.
Kaisersberg. See Geiler.
KaisersvT^erth. See Fliedner.
Klajoniort.s, the Persian name for the first man, who they say was a direct descendant of a bull (Abu- dad), and was botli man and wife at the same time. So sacred was his person tliat even angels worshipped him. Ahriman, however, was bent upon his destruction, and for thirty years he persecuted Kajomorts. until success- fid in slaying him. But the seed of Kajomorts fructified the earth, tlie sun purified it, and after forty years a plant sprang up, whicli became a mighty tree, bearing, instead of fruit, ten human pairs, one of which, Meshia and Meshiane, became the ancestors of the human race (see Vollmer, Worterb. d.3Iythol. p. 992). See Ormuzd ;
ZOROASTRIAXISM.
Kakusandu is the name of the third Buddha who preceded Gotama (q. v.), and, according to Major Forbes's (Journ. Asiatic Societj/, June, 1836) calcidation of Hin- du chronology, must have lived on the earth B.C. 3101 (see Hard}', Manual of Buddhism, p. 87, 96, et al.). See Buddha.
Kalasutra, the Hindu name for a place in heU to which the trespassers of Hindu tradition are consigned, particidarly those who, after offering a sacrifice for their ancestors, d^re to remove from the altar any portion of the offering which the flames might, have left uncon- sumed. See Vollmer, \Voi-te?-b. d. Mythol. p. 993.
Kalderon (more accurately Calderon), the most celebrated poet of Spain, born of a noble familj'- at Mad- rid Jan. 1, 1601, was educated at the University of Sala- manca, but at length went into the army, and fought in Milan and Flanders, until in 1651 he entered the priest- hood. Already, as a soldier, he had devoted much time to the cultivation of his poetical talents ; now, as a priest, he devoted most of his time to it, and it is for his influ- ence on the religious poetry of Spain, for his relation to the history of Roman Catholic poetry, that we make room for a short sketch of this religious (Roman Catho- lic) Shakespeare. Shortly after his admission to the priesthood he took a chaplaincj' at Toledo, but the king, with whom Kalderon was in special favor, soon gained the poet for his court by assigning Kalderon a lucrative position in the royal chapel. He died about 1681, per- haps somewhat later. He WTOte no less than five hun- dred dramas, many of which have a religious tendency, and display most accurately the religious and moral character of his time and people. Those of his produc- tions wdiich have been preserved are divided into three different groups. The first contains his comedies of fa- miliar life ; the second, the heroic ; and the third em- braces his religious pieces, or "Sacramental Acts" {Au- tos Sacramentales), and these only concern us here. They are compositions which bear a strong resem- blance to the miracle-plays of the Middle Ages, and are, like them, deformed by fantastic extravagances of re- ligious opinion anil feeling. Some of them, however, are beautifully poetical. One of the most character- istic, held also by some critics to be the best, is " The Devotion of the Cross," a strange farrago of tlie wildest supernatural inventions, and the most impracticaUy-mo- tived exhibitions of human conduct, but breathing a po-
KALDI
KALI
etic spirit which is wonderfully impressive. One of its main incidents is the legend of one dead man shriving another, which had been used by another poet. An- other successful effort of his is "The steadfast Prince." Both of these have frequently been translated into En- glish and other languages. See, however, Ticknor, Ilis- lorij of Spanish Literature (new edition, 1871, with In- dex). One of the ablest Koman Catholic critics, pro- fessor Frederick Schlegel, thus speaks of Kalderon's po- sition as a Christian poet: "The Christianity of this poet, however, does not consist so much in the external circumstances which he has selected, as in his peculiar feeling, and the method of treating his subject, which is most common with him. Even where his materials fur- nish him with no opportunity of drawing the perfect development of a new life out of death and suffering, yet everything is conceived in the spirit of this Chris- tian love and purification, everything seen in its light, and clothed in the splendor of its heavenly coloring. In every situation and circumstance, Kalderon is, of all dramatic poets, the most Christian, and for that very reason the most romantic" {IIistoi-y of Literature, p. 280, 281). Se.e also Eichendorff, GeistlicJie Schauspiele von Don Pedro Kalderon de la Barca ; Schmidt, Schauspiele Calderom (Eberfeld, 1857) ; Herzog, Real-Encyklop. vii, 218 sq. (.J.H.W.)
Kaldi, Georg, a celebrated Hungarian Jesuit, was born at Tyrnau (Hungary) in 1570. After filling vari- ous positions in the Jesuitical order, preaching at Vienna, and teaching theology at Olmutz, he became at last rec- tor of the college at Presburg, and remained there until his death in 16o4. He was the first Roman Catholic to furnish Ids co-religionists a Hmigarian translation of the Bible. It was published at Vienna in 1G2G, folio (the Protestant translation, by Visoli, was made in 1589). A portion of Kaldi's sermons were published at Presburg in 1G31.
Kalendar. See Calendar.
Xali (or Kalee) is the name of one of the many forms of Doorgd, so popularly and variously worshipped in Hindustan. •
Names and History. — Doorgfi is the female principle in the production of the world who appears throughout the Hindu Shastras as Prakriti or Bhagwati. She is said to have had a thousand names, and to have appear- ed in a vast number of forms in different periods: thus, as Sati, she first became the wife of Siva, but renounced her life on hearing her father reproach her husband. She again appeared as " the mountain-born goddess" under the name of Parirati, and again married Siva. After giving birth to her sons Ganesh and Katik, she became renowned for her achievements in war agamst the giant enemies of the gods.
Tins goddess assumed the name of Kali on the occa- sion of a battle with a thousand-headed giant demigod whom she slew. In her excessive delight over her vic- tor}-, she danced till she shook the foundation of the earth, and the gods were compelled to induce her hus- band Siva to influence her to stop, which, however, he found no means of doing till he resorted to the expedi- ent of throwing himself among the bodies of the slain. Kali, observing herself dancing on the body of her hus- band, was shocked, and, protruding her tongue in her surprise, stood still. In this attitude she is re^^resented in the images of her now made, and sold, and worship- ped tlirougliout Bengak
Lnages. — In allusion to the above contest with the giant. Kali is often represented as " a ten-armed god- ilcss." Her image in this aspect is that of a yeUow woman with ten arms, richly dressed and ornamented, standing erect, resting lier left foot on the back of a prostrate buffalo, and her right on that of a couchant lion, holding in her hands a spear, an axe, a discus, a trident, a club, an arrow, and a shield.
Her most common image, however, is that of a black or very dark blue-colored woman with four arms ; the
upper left arm holding a cimeter, the louver left a hu- man head by the hair. The other right arm is held up to indicate either that she is bestowing a blessing or the restoration of nature from the devastation which she has caused, and to which her lower right hand is pointing. iVll her hands are bloody. In this form she is standing on the body of her husband, who is a white man, stretch- ed at fidl length upon his back.' Around her waist, as a covering, she wears a string of bloody human hands. She wears an immense neclvlace, reaching below her knees, which is composed of human skulls. In some images a pair of dead human bodies hang by the hair from her ears. Her tongue, as above set forth, protrudes from her mouth upon her chin.
She appears, moreover, under other forms : sitting on a dead body, with two giants' heads in her arms ; as a black female sitting on a throne, etc.
Character. — Kali, in Hindu mj'thology, is nothing more nor less than a, female Satan. She is a very san- guinary goddess; her eyebrows are bloody, and blood falls in a stream down her breast. Her eyes are red, like those of a drunkard.
Sacrifices. — ]Mr. Ward makes a summary from one of the Puranas to the effect that a tiger's blood offered to her in sacrifice will please her for a hundred years ; that of a lion, a reindeer, or a man, a thousand years ; and that of three men for ten hundred thousand years. In the event of a human person being offered in sacrifice, it must be performed in a cemetery, or at a temple, or in a mountain. Only a person of good appearance should be offered. The victim should be adorned with chaplets and besmeared with sandal-wood, after various ablu- tions. The deformed, timid, leprous, or crippled must not be offered ; nor must a priest, nor a childless broth- er. The victim must be prepared the day before the offering, his neck being besmeared with blood from the axe with which he is to be sacrificed. Besides this, however, persons may draw blood from their own bod- ies, or cut off their flesh, to be presented to this goddess as a burnt-offering, or burn the body by the flame of a lamp.
Worshippers. — Many Hindus adopt the ten-armed Doorgfi as their guardian deity, and she is considered as the image of the divine energy. Her worship in Lower Bengal is so popidar that on the occasion of a great an- nual festival all business is suspended, and even the Eu- ropean courts, custom-house, and other public offices are closed.
The professional robbers and murderers so long known and dreaded throughout India, and notorious elsewhere as Thugs, are the special devotees of the four-armed Kali. In the hope of greater success in their work, they consecrate to her their instruments of death, and. their victims are held to be immolated in her honor. These men will join travellers, and accompany them for days, gaining their confidence if possible, xmder some disguise, until, watching their opportunity, they can ad- minister drugs,or choke them with a small cord, and then rob them of all they possess. Formerly, it is supposed, the goddess rendered them much more assistance than of late, by putting out of the way the corpses of those slain ; but, in consequence of one of their number look- ing behind him after a murder, she ceased to render them so certainly this assistance, as this was a violation of the express condition on which she kept secret all traces of their deeds. The accounts of the occasion of their losing her assistance in this particular arc cc in- flicting, and scarcely worthy of reproduction. I'ersons wishing to trace the matter may refer to Illustrations of the History a lul Practices of the Thugs (Lond. 1837). See Thugs.
Cti-emonies. — Distinct from the great festival alluded to above in honor of Doorgfi as tlie "ten-armed goddess" is a famous and popular festival held in her service un- der the special form of Kali. It is observed with much the same form as tlie other. Annual sacrifices of sweet- meats, sugar, garments, rice, plantains, and pease are of-
KALI
KALMUCKS
fered in great abundance. The first day ends with singing, dancing, and feasting, and with the lower class- es in great debauchery and shameless licentiousness, the arak, an intoxicating liquor, being consecrated to the idol goddess. On the second morning images of all sizes representative of the goddess are made, and, after consecration by the Brahmaus, are carried through the streets in procession to the Hooghly Eiver, and there, carried out in boats, are thrown into it, and with this act terminate these wild and terrible orgies. Immense sums are expended by many of these devotees during these festivals. Mr. Ward estimates as much as £9000 sterling to have been expended annually at the single shrine in Calcutta, and narrates cases of individual offer- ings, at one time, of £10,000, comprising rich beds, sil- ver plate, and food for the entertainment of a thousand persons.
Temples. — There arc many buildings devoted to her worship. The greatest and most popular of these is that of Kali-Ghat, about three miles to the south of Calcutta. There are fifty other edifices in various parts of India devoted to Doorga under her variety of forms and names. All these are said to have originated in an incident connected with her history previous to her having assumed the shape of Parwati, when Vishnu sev- ered her body into fifty-one separate pieces, which were strewn over the earth, and conferred a peculiar sanctity on the places where they happened to fall. All of these became sites of temples, in which an image' of some one of her thousand forms was set up. The whole of the country to the south of Calcutta, including the spot known as Kali-Ghat, was thus rendered sacred, the toes of the right foot being deposited at the latter place. The temple at Kali-Ghat consists of one room, with a large pavement around it. The image of Kali is in this temple (Ward, ii, 157).
There is, perhaps, no fabled impersonation in all the Hindu mj^thology exerting a greater or more gloomy influence over millions of men than Doorga, under the title of Kali.
Literature. — Journ. of the Asiatic Society's Research- es, vol. V. ; Coleman, Mytholor/y of the Hindoos ; Moor, Hindoo Pantheon ; Ward, Hindoo Mi/tholof/t/ ; account of temple at Kali-Ghat in the Calcutta Christian Ob- server, Sept. 1833 ; Col. Sleeman, Journey through Oudh. (J.T.G.)
Kali. See Parched Coex.
Kallghi is the name of one (the tenth) impersona- tion of the Hindu god Vishnu. See Kiusiina.
EZaliph (more generally Caliph), originally a depu- ty or lieutenant, but afterwards applied chiefly to the suc- cessors of Mohammed. As a representative of the proph- et and Islam, the caliph exercised a power which was primarily spiritual, and in theory, therefore, he claimed the obedience of aU Mohammedans. In practice the claim was soon disregarded, and the Fatimite caliphs of Africa and the sovereigns of the Ommiad dynasty of Spain each professed to be the only legitimate represent- atives of Jlohammed, in opposition to the Abasside ca- liphs of Bagdad. The latter caliphat reached its high- est splendor under Haroun al-Eascliid, in the 9th cen- tury; but his division of the empire among his sons showed how completely the caliph had lost sight of the spiritual theorj' of his office. For the last two hundred years the appellation of caliph has been swallowed up in shah, sultan, emir, and other titles peculiar to the East. See Brande and Cox, Dictionary of iSciencej Literature, and A rt, i, 350.
Kalir, Eleasar Ha-, one of the oldest Jewish poets of Italy, generally regarded as the founder of the syna- gogual poetry of the non-Se]Aardite Jews in Europe, flourished about the beginning of the 8th centurj'. Of his personal history nothing further is known. He wrote some one hundred and fifty different sacred poems, many of which were inserted in the liturgies of the Babylonian, Italian, German, and French Jews. He was a disciple of
Jannai, and was greatly admired by his contemporaries. See Griitz, Gesch. d.Juden, v, 181 sq. ; Sachs, Religiose Poesie d. Juden in Spanien, p. 180 sq. ; Zunz, Synagogale Poesie d. Jifittelalters, p. 128 sq. See also Liturgy, Jew- ish; Machsor; Synagogual Poetry.
Kaliyuga, or the Kali Age, is the fourth or last age of the Malta, or great age [see Yuga], and bears some resemblance to the Iron Age of classical mythol- ogy. The Hindus, recognising, like all religionists of antiquity, that man by sin has fallen from las high es- tate, have divided the world's existence into four pe- riods, which arc marked by successive physical and mor- al decrements of created beings. They hold that the present period is the last one, that it consists of 432,000 solar sidereal years, and tliat the Kali Age began B.C. 3102. "In the Krita (or first) age," Manu says, "the (genius of) Truth and Right (in the form of a bull) stands firm on his four feet, nor docs any a<lvantage ac- crue to men from iniquity. But in the following ages, by reason of unjust gains, he is deprived successive V of one foot; and even just emoluments, through the prevalence of theft, falsehood, and fraud, are gradually diminished by one foot (i. e. by a fourth part)." The estimate in which Kaliyuga, our present age, is held by the modern Hindus may be gathered from one of their most celebrated Puranas, the Padma-Purana. In the last chapter of one of the books (Kriyayogasara) of this Purana, the following account, which we take from Chambers, Cycloptedia (s. v. Kaliyuga), is given of it: " In the Kaliyuga (the genius of) Right will have but one foot ; every one will delight in e\-il. The four castes will be devotea to wickedness, and deprived of the nour- ishment which is fit for them. The Brahmans will neg- lect the Vcdas, hanker after presents, be lustful and cruel. They will despise the Scriptures, gamble, steal, and desire intercourse with widows. . • . For the sake of a livelihood, some Brahmans will become arrant rogues. . . . The Sudras Avill endeavor to lead the life of the Brahmans, and, out of friendship, people will bear false witness . . . they will injure the wives of others, and their speech will be that of falsehood. Greedy of the wealth of others, they will entertain a guest according to the behest of the Scriptures, but af- terwards kill him out of covetousness ; they are indeed worthy of hell. The twice-born (i. e. the first; three castes) will live upon debts, sell the produce of cows, and even their daughters. In this Yuga men will be under the sway of women, and women will be exces- sively fickle. ... In the Kaliyuga the earth will bear but little corn ; the clouds will shed but little rain, and that, too, out of season. The cows will feed on ordure,, and give little milk, and the milk will yield no butter ;. there is no doubt of that. . . . Trees, even, ^vilI wither in twelve j'ears, and the age- of mankind will not exceed sixteen years ; people, moreover, wiU become gray- haired in their youth ; women will bear childrM in their fifth or sixth year, and men will become troubled with a great number of children. In the Kaliyuga the foreigners will become kings, bent upon evil; and those living in foreign countries will be all of one caste, and out of lust take to themselves many wives. In the first twilight of the Kaliyuga people wiU disregard Vishnu, and in the midtUe of it no one will even mention his name." Tliere is a remarkable identity of the Hin- du belief with that of the Hebrew as to redemption from this sinful state by a Messiah. See Hardwick, Christ and other Masters, i, 303 sq., 329 sq. ; Weber,. Indische Sludien, ii, 411 ; Wilson, Asiatic Researches, x, 27 sq. ; Alger, History of the Doctrine of a Future Life^ p. Ill sq.
Kallah. See Talmud.
Kal'lai (Heb. Kallay', i^p, runner; Serft. Ka\- X«i), a chief priest, son of Sallai, contemporary with the high-priest Joiakim (Neh. xii, 20). B.C. post 53G.
Kalmucks (Tatar KhaKmik, i. c. apostates), also- called OlOk or Ekutes, a Jlongolian tribe of nomads,
KALONYMUS
KAMA
a portion of whom live under Chinese rule, while the cjreater number, during the last two centuries, have set- tled in or belong to Russia. They are similar to the Mongols proper, but inferior to them in point of civiliza- tion. They are divided into nobles, people (serfs), and priests ; the last have, in i»articular, a very great in- fluence among the Buddhistic Kalmucks. They are divided into tribes (IHuss), at the head of which are Tchaidas; and the tribes are subdivided into Aimaiis (of from 150 to 300 families each), at the head of which are the Saisans. They call themselves Derhen Eret (Uorbon-Oirat), i. e. the four allies, because, from time immemorial, they have been divided into four chief tribes : 1. The Dsongars, after whom Dsongaria is called, formerly the most powerful of the tribes, but subse- quently subdued by the Chinese, and now extant onlj^ in small number. 2. The Koshotes (i. e. warriors), un- der princes from the family of Jenghis Khan, num- bering from 50,000 to 60,000; they voluntarily placed themselves under the sceptre of Russia, and are loyal subjects; their favorite drink is the kumiss (fermented horse milk). 3. The Derbets, living, in the 16th and 17tli centuries, on the Volga and Ural, now on the Don and the Hi. 4. The Torgots (Ttirga-Uten), or Kalmucks of the Volga, have, for the most part, left Russian terri- tory; only the tribe Zoochor, under the prince Dundu- kor, a grand-uncle of the powerful khan Ayuka, remain- ed. Dimdukor himself was baptized, and, by order of Alexander I, the title passed over to his son-in-law Xor- kasov. Some of the Kalmucks live scattered in the gov- ernment of Simbirsk (15,000 souls, all in connection with the Greek Church), others east of the Ural, on the Jhet River (professing Islamism), and in several commercial towns of Russia, altogether about 1 20,000 souls, of whom 73 per cent, live in the government of Astrachan. The majority of the Kalmucks are still Buddhists. They were all originaUy adherents of that form of Buddhism Imown as Lumaism, which the IMongols in general re- ceived from Thibet. In Dsongaria they have two cel- ebrated temples; the one is situated on the Tekes, the other on the Hi. In the latter resides the Tchamba Lama in the winter, and with him a number of priests, who here teach reading and writing. They are joined by pious pilgrims and numerous Chinese merchants, who set up their shops around the temple. The chiefs of the Chinese Kalmucks used to receive from the man- darin the insignia of their rank, but of late the virtual independence of Dsongaria has severed the former re- lation of the Kalmucks to the Chinese government; and, after the occupation of Kultsha by the Russians in ^lay, 1871, the Chinese Kalmucks generally declared their submission to the Russian government. The lan- guage of the Kalmucks is a branch of the jNIongolian language ; grammars of the language have been pub- lished bj' Bobrovnikov (Kasan, 1849) and Zwieck (Don- aue^iingen, 1857). The literature consists almost ex- clusively of translations of Buddhistic writings from India. A collection of legends (Siddhi-Kiir), with Ger- man translation, was published by Julg (Leipzig, 1866). (A.J.S.)
Kalonymus ben-Kalonymcs, a Jewish writer of some note, was born in Italy in 1287, but lived for some time in Southern France, and was there picked up by king Robert of Naples, lie returned with the latter to his native land, and filled some important offices in his service. Kalonymus Avas an accomiilished scholar, translated into Hebrew medical, astronomical, and phil- osophical works of the Aral)ians, wrote a number of sa- tirical treatises on the low moral state of his contempo- raries, and labored in this and other ways to ameliorate the miserable condition of his countrymen. lie died about 1^37. The best of his later works is 'n2 '"X, or The Stone of Wcepinfj (Naples, 1489 ; translated into Jewish German, Frkft. 1746). He also edited with great ability a part of the Arabian Encyclopaedia of the Sci- ences (known as "Treatises of the Honest Brethren") for
the use of the Italian Jews. See Gratz, Gesck. d. Juden, vii, 305sq.; Zimz,in GeigeTsZeitsch7-iJ't,u,8l3; iv, 200 sq. ; Fliigel, Zeitschrift der deutsch. Morgenldnd, Gesdlsch, 1859. (J. H. W.)
Kalottinocracy is a new word sometimes used instead of hierarchij. The word is derived from the French cidotta (cap, such as the Roman Catholic clergy wear), and the Greek Ktiartiv (to govern).
Kalpa designates in Hindu chronology the Brah- minical period of one day and night, and corresponds to a period of 4,320,000,000 solar sidereal years, or years of mortals, measuring the diu-ation of the world, and, ac- cording to many, including even the interval of its anni- hilatioii. The Bhavishya-Purdna admits of an infinity of kalpas; other Puranas enumerate tliirty. A great kalpa comprises not a day, but a life of Brahma. In Vedic literature, kalpa is a Vedanga ((j. v.). See Hardy, Manual of Buddhism, p. 1 sq., 7 sq. See Kalpa-Sltra.
Kalpa-Sutra is, in Vedic literature, the name of those Sanscrit works which treat of the ceremonials usual at a Vedic sacritice. See Veda. In Jaina litera- ture it is the name of the most sacred religious work of the Jainas (q. v.). It chiefly relates the legeudarj^ his- tory of Slahavira, the last of their twenty-four deified saints, or Tirthankaras, but contains also an account of four other saints of the same class. The author of the work was Bhadra Bahu, and it was composed, Stevenson assumes, in the year A.D. 411, It is held in high respect by the Jainas, who, out of the eight days which, in the middle of the rains, they devote to the reading of their most sacred writings, allot no less than live to the Kalpa- Sutra. See Stevenson, The Kuljxi-Sutra and Nava Tutva (London, 1848).
Kalteiseil, Hejnrioh, a celebrated Dominican of the 15th century, was born near Coblentz, and educated at Vienna and Cologne. In the latter city he was af- terwards professor of theology, preaching at the same time. Later he removed to Mentz, and became general inquisitor of Germany. He was present at the Council of Basle, and took quite a prominent part in the delib- erations against the Hussites. He was one of the four doctors on the Roman CathoUc sitle who disputed with the Bohemians. See Hussites; Basle, Council of. In 1443 pope Eugenius IV made him Magister sacri Pa- latii, and in 1452 pope Nicholas V created him arch- bishop of Drontheim. He died in 1465. Kalteisen's literary abilities are general!}^ spoken of as moderate. He wrote much, but little has been published. See Basnage-Canisius, Led. Antiq. iv, 628 sq. ; Quetif and Echard, Script. Ord. Freed, ii, 828 ; Schrijchk, Kirchen- rjesch. xxxiv, 707 ; Wetzer u. Welte, Kirchen-Lex. y'l, 15.
Kama, the Hindu dera or deity of Love, one of the most pleasing creations of Hindu fiction, is, in the San- scrit poetty of later periods, the favorite theme of de- scriptions and allusions. The genealogy of this deitA' is quite obscure ; according to some Puranas, he was orig- inalh' a son of Brahma ; according t(S others, a son of Dharma (the genius of Virtue), In' Sraddha (the ge-r nius of Faith), herself a daughter of Daksha, who was one of the mind-born sons of Brahma. Tlie god Siva, being on one occasion greatly incensed at Kama, re- duced him to ashes; but ultimately, moved by the af- fliction of Rati (Voluptuousness), the wife of Kama, he promised her that her husband should be reborn as a son of Krishna, and he was accordingly born under the name of Pradi/umna, who was the god of Love. " But when the infant was six days old it was stolen from the lying-in chamber bj- the terrible diemon Sainbara ; for the latter foreknew that Pradyumna, if he lived, would be his destroyer. The boy was thrown into the ocean, and swallowed by a large fish. Yet he did not die, for that fish was caught by fishermen, and delivered to Mayavati, the mistress of Sambara's household ; and, when it was cut open, the child was taken from it. While INIayavati wondered who this coiUd be, the di- vine sage Narada satisfied her curiosity, and counselled
KAMA
KAMI
her to rear tenderly this offspring of Krishna. She act- ed as lie advised her; and when Pradyumna grew up, and learned his own history, he slew the diemon Sam- bara. Mayavati, however, was later apprized by Krish- na that she was not the wife of Sambara, as she had fancied herself to be, but tliat of Prad3'unma — in fact, another form of IJati, who was the wife of Kama iu his former existence. In the representations of Kama we find him holding in one hand a bow made of sugar-cane, and strung with bees, in the other an arrow tipped with the blossom of a tlower which is supposed to con- quer one of the senses. His standard is, agreeably to the legend above mentioned, a fabulous fish, called Ma- kara ; and he rides on a parrot or sparrow — the sjtnbol of voluptuousness. His epithets are numerous, but easi- ly accounted for from the circumstances named, and from the effects of love on the mind and senses. Thus he is called MaJcaradhwaja, * the one who has Makara in his banner;' Mada, 'the maddener,' etc. His wife, as before stated, is Rati; she is also called Kajnakala, ' a portion of Kama,' or Prifi, ' affection.' His daugh- ter is Trisha, 'thirst or desire;' and his son is Anirud- dha, ' the irresistible.' " — Chambers, Cyclop, s. v. See Midler, Chips, vol. ii, ch. i, especially p. 127-135; Voll- raer, Mythol. Worferbuck, p. 1008.
Kama. See T.VLJtuD.
Kaniawachara, the Buddhist name of one of the three divisions of the Sakwala (q. v.), and refers to the worlds in which there is form, with sensual, enjoy- ment. The Buddhist affirms that there are iniumiera- ble worlds, but only three kinds of them, viz. (1) worlds in which there is no perceptible form ; (2) workls in which there is form, but no sensual enjoyment; (3) and lastly, the Kamcncachara explained above. See Hardy, Manual of Buddhism, p. 3 sq.
Kamenker. See Meir, Mose.
Kami (or Happy Spirits) is the name given in Jap- anese mythology to certain spirits or divinities who founded the first terrestrial dynasty. All primitive my- thologies are coupled with and made to rise out of cos- mogony. Unfortunately, however, the cosmogony of the Japanese is not only of the wildest sort, but so mixed with that of the Chinese that it is very difficult to speak with any certainty of this ancient religion. From primieval chaos, say the Japanese, there sprung a self- created, supreme God, who fixed his abode in the high- est heaven, and could not have his tranquillity disturb- ed by any cares. Next there arose two plastic, creative gods, who framed the universe out of chaos. The uni- verse was then governed for myriads of years by seven gods in succession. They are called the Celestial Gods. The last of them was the only one that had a wife, and to him the earth we inhabit owes its existence. In what may be called the Genesis of the Japanese Bible the creation of the world is thus narrated :
" In the beginning there was neither heaven nor earth. The elements of all things formed a liquid and troubled mass, similar to the contents of an undeveloped epfg. iu which the white and the yellow are still mingled together. Out of the intiuite space which this chaos filled a god arose, called the divine Supreme Being, whose throne is iu the centre of heaven. Then came the celestial reason, exalted above the creation ; linally, the terrestrial reason, who is the sublime spirit. Each one of these three prim- itive gods had his own existence, but they were not yet revealed beyond their spiritual natures. Then, by de- grees, the work of separation went on in chaos. The fiuest atoms, moving in different directions, formed the heavens. The grosser atoms, attaching themselves to each other, and adhering, produced the earth. The for- mer, moving rapidly, constructed the vault of the firma- ment which arches above our heads; the latter, being slowly drrtwn together in a solid body, did not form the earth until at a much later period. When the earthly matter still floated as a fish that comes to the surface of the waters, or as the image of the moon that trembles on a limpid lake, there appeared between the heavens and the earth something smiilar to a piece of reed, endowed with movement, and capable of transformation. It was changed into three gods, which are: the August one, reiguing perpetually over the empire; he who leigns by Tirine of water ; and he who reigns by virtue of tire.' All
three were of the male sex, because they owed their origin to the action of the divine reason alone. After the first three males there came three pairs ofgods and goddesses, •reigning over the elements of wood, metal, and earth. This second dynasty contained as many goddesses as gods, because the terrestrial united equally with the celes- tial reason iu producing them. The first of the seven gods commenced the creation of the earth, and all to- gether personify the elements of the creation. The ^ra of the celestial gods, commencing with the first and ter- minating with the last male and female pair, who were called Izanaghi and Izauami, coutinued for millions on millions of years."
But the world, and, most important of all, the empire of Japan, was not yet created. The account given, therefore, is very circumstantial. One day, when the god and goddess were sitting together on the arch of the sky, they happened to talk of the possible existence of an inferior world. "There should be somewhere," said Izanaghi at length to his wife, " a habitable earth. Let us seek it under the waters that are seething beneath us." He plunged his spear into the water, and, as he withdrew it, some turbid drops trickled from the dia- mond point of his javelin, congealed, and formed a great island, iqion which the pair descended, determined to make it the beginning of a grand archipelago. From out the waters Izanaghi raised the island of Av/adzi, then the mountainous Oho-yamato, rich in fruits and with fine harbors; then the others in succession, until the empire of the eight great islands was completed. The smaller islands were then made, six in number; and .the islets scattered here and there formed them- selves afterwards from the mixture of the sea-foam and the deposits of the rivers. Eight millions ofgods (ge- nii) were then called into existence, and ten thousand kinds of things, out of which came everything that can be foimd in the earth. Upon the completion of this work, Izanaghi and his wife made the earth their habi- tation, and i)ecame the progenitors of the five dynasties of terrestrial deities, who in turn governed the earth during two million and odd years. The last of these, having married a terrestrial wife, left a mortal son upon earth named Linmou-tenwou, the ancestor and progen- itor of the races of men, the first of the mikados. See iMiK.VDO. Born upon earth, Linmou-tcn\vou was of course mortal. His parents, especially the tender Iza- nami, tremljled .at the thought that she must one day close the eyes of her children, and yet continue to enjoy immortality herself. They therefore conferred upon their terrestrial offspring the gift of immortality, the power of mediation bet^veen the gods and man — made them immortal kamis, happy spirits, worthy of divine honors. This is the point where the Japanese com- mence their history, and hence their doctrine, that the spirits of human beings survive the body, and, accord- ing to the actions of the individual in life, receive re- ward or punishment. When a man's life has been flis- tinguishcd for piety, for patriotism, or for good works, the Japanese deify him, after death, as a kami, and thus the number of these demigods has liecome indefi- nite. Some of these spirits preside specially over the elements and powers of nature.
The worship of these demigods or Kami is called Kami-no-mitsi, or " the way of the Kami." It pos- sesses some features which are found in the religious observances of no other race. There are chapels dedi- cated to the several Kamis in all parts of the empire, but they are most numerous and celebrated in the .south- ern islands. " These chapels are called mias. They are always built in the most picturesque localities, and es- pecially where there is a grove of high trees. Some- times a splendid avenue of pines or cedars conducts to the sacred place, which is always approached tlirough one or more detached portals, called toris, like the jiylse of the Egyptian temples. The chapel is usually set upon a hill, natural or artificial, buttressed with Cyclo- pean walls, and with a massive stone stairway leading to the top. At the foot of the stairs there is a small building containing a tank of water for ablutions. The chapel itsellis usually small, and very simple in its plan.
KAIVOION
10
KANAH
much resembling the native dwelling -house. Three sides are closed, and one is open to sun and air. The woodwork is kcjit scrupulously clean, and the floor is covered with the finest matting. The altar, which stands alone in the centre, is ornamented with a jjlain disk of metal, but no statues or sj'mbolical figures are to be seen, and very rarely emblems of any kinil. Never- theless, there are sometimes stationed at the head of the staircase, outside of the chapel, sitting figures resembling dogs ancl unicorns, which are said to represent the elc- ' ments of water and fire. The interior is generally hung with strijis or ribbons of colored paper, the exact signif- icance of which is not yet clearly understood. The chapels are also ornamented by their pious votaries with colored lanterns, vases of perfume, and of fiowers or ever- green branches, which are renewed as fast as they witli- er. At the foot of the altar there is a hea\'y chest with a metal grating, through which fall the pieces of money contributed : it is hardly necessary to say that the priest carries a key to the box. These mias were originallj^ commemorative chapels, erected in honor of Jajianese heroes, like that of Tell by the lake of the Four Forest Cantons. The prince of the province which had given birth to the hero, or where his deeds had been perform- ed, took upon himself the charge of keeping the chapel in repair ; there was no priest to officiate at the altar of the kami; no privileged caste interposed between the adorer and the object of his worship. The act of ado- ration, in fact, performed before the mirror (represent- ing that bequeathed by' the goddess Izanami to her chil- dren\ passed beyond the guardian spirit of the chapel, and reached the supreme god above him. The chapel, therefore, was open to all ; the worship was voluntary, and offered as the intUvidual might choose, no ceremo- nial being prescribed. With the introduction of Buddh- ism, however, an important change took place. The new faith was sufficiently incorporated with the old to transfer the chapels to the special charge of the priests [called Kami-nusi, or 'ministers of the spirits'], and to introduce, in place of the voluntary, formless worship of the people, a system of processions, litanies, offerings, and even of miracle-working images. Indeed, almost the only difference between this system and the worship of the saints in Catholic countries lies in the circum- stance tliat the priests who officiate only put on their surplices for the occasion, and become secular again when they leave the chapel" (Bayard Taylor's Japan, p. 255 sq., in the excellent collection of Scribner's Librurij of Wonders, Ti-avels, etc., N. Y., 1872, 12mo). Compare Humbert, Sojourn in Japan, transl. in Ladies' Reposito- ry, JNIarch, 1870, p. 184 sq. ; Macfarlane, Japan (London, 1852, 8vo), p. 204 sq.; Siebold, Nippon, i, 3 sq.; ii, 51 ; K-impfer, Japan, in Pinkerton, vii, 672 sq. ; Tylor, Prim- itive Culture (London, 1871, 2 vols. 8vo), vol. ii (see Li- dex). (J.H.W.)
Kammon. ■ See Cummin.
Kanipanton, Lsaac ben-Jacob, a Jewish rabbi of some note, was born in Castile in 13(50. Of his personal history but little is known. He was gaon of Castile, and is particularly looted for his contributions to Tal- mudical literature, and his influence, through his pupils, on Jewish Utcrature of the 15th century in the Sjianish pcninsida. lie died at Penjafiel in 14G3. One of his most important works is 'll^pnn "^w"!" {Ways of the Talmud, first published atlSIantua in 1590), an introduc- tion to the study of the Talmud (really a methodology). See Griitz, Gesch. d. Jttden, viii, 152 ; Jost, Gesch. d. Ju- dentliiims,ui,87; Yiirst, Biblioth.Jud. \,U0. (.LILW.)
Kamsin. See Simoom.
Kamtchatka, a peninsula in the extreme north- east of Asia, occupied by the Kussians from lODG to 1706, extends Ijetween the seas of Kamtchatka and Ochotzk, fipm latitude 51° to 61° N., and contains 20,800 square miles, and about 4500 inhaliitants, one third of whom arc Kussians. The fimner principal place, Nish- nei Kamtschatk, on the mouth of the Kamtchatka
River, has hardly 200 inhabitants. Petropaulovsk, the present capital, is the seat of a Kusso-American trading company, and has a population of about 1000. Until 185G Kamtchatka was a separate district ; at present it constitutes the district Petropaulovsk, of the coast dis- trict of Eastern Siberia. The Kamtchadales inhabit, besides Kamtchatka, also a part of the Kurilc Islands. They belong to the IMongolian race, are small, have thick heads, and flat, broad faces, and small e)'es, which are fre- quently inflamed by the snow. Though baptized, the Kamtchadales are still addicted to Shamanism (q. v.), and, in particular, practice sorcery. They are fund of hunting and fishing, good-natured, and hospitable. (A. J. S.)
Kaiia (Heb. ilSpn "iS5), the name of one of the later cabalistic works treating of the religious rites of the Jews, has attained considerable notoriety on account of its decided opposition not only to all the Jewish ritu- al, to Talmudical interpretation, and to the Talmud itself, but for its fierce attacks even against Biblical Judaism. Its authorship is undecided, but of late most Jewish crit- ics lean to the opinion that Kana and another cabalistic work entitled Felia (fiS^bs, pubUshed at Kores in 1784, and often), an interpretation of the first book of the Law (Genesis), were written by one and tlie same person, and belong to a Spanish Jewish heretic of the 15th century or thereabout. Dr.Jellinek {Bet-Ha-Midrash, iii; Einl. p. xxxviii sq.) thinks both the production of an Italian or Greek Jew. See, for further details, Griitz, Gesch. d. Juden, viii, 230 sq., 458 sq. See also C.vbala, (J. H.W.)
Ka'nah (Heb. Kanah', njj^, re'edy ; Sept. Kavu v. r. KavBav), the name of two places in Palestine.
1. A stream (?n3, torrent or wady, q. d. " the brook of reeds," as in the marg.) that formed the boundary be- tween Ephraim and jManasseh, from the ^Mediterranean eastward to the vicinity of Tappuah (Josh, xvi, 8) ; ly- ing properly within the territory of IManasseh, although the towns on its southern bank were assigned to the tribe of Ephraim (Josh, xvii, 0 ; see Keil, Comment, ad loc. prior.). See Tribe. Schwarz says it is to be still found in the equivalent Arabic name Wady al-Kazah (valley of reeds), that rises in a spring of the same name, Ain al-Kazah, one mile west of Shechem, and, after flowing westerly, acquiring a considerable breadth, and irrigating fields on its way, finally falls into the jNIedi- terranean south of Ciesarea (Palestine, p. 51). Other travellers, however, do not speak of such a stream unless it be the Nahr el-Kezih (river of reeds) spoken of in the Life of Saladin (p. 191, 193) as existing between Caesa- rea and Arroplo (Arsuf), and supposed to be represented by the Nahr-Arsuf (otherwise el-Kassah) which enters the INIediterranean due west of Sebustieh (Samaria). Dr. Robinson, in his last visit to Palestine, discovered a Wady Kanah, south-west of Shechem, which he de- scribes as originating in a spring of tlie same name in the plain el-Mukhna (south of Nablus), and running be- tween deep and rugged banks westerly to the jilaln bor- dering the ^Mediterranean, near Ilableh, where it is wide and cultivated, and bears a different name (Reseai'ches, new edit., iii, 135); from which it appears that it joins the Nahr cl-Aujeh, as laid down on his map. This, however, is too southern a position for the stream in question ; for it would wholly cut off Ephraim from the sea-coast, and confine its territory within verj' narrow limits (Thomson, Land and Bool; ii, 259). In the ab- sence of more specific infonnation respecting this region, we may conclude that the name " Brook of Kceds" is a designation of the sedgy streams that constitute the Nahr Falaik (comp. the Arundinetis, between Ca^sarea and Apollonia, spoken of by Schultens, Vita Saladini, p. 191, 193), perhaps including its middle branch, called Wady Mussin or Slleh {on Van de Velde's Map). Dr. Thomson {ui sup.) thinks it is the present 46m Zabura; but this, again, seems rather too far north.
2. A town in the northern part of Asher, not very
KANDEKUMARAIO
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far from its eastern border, mentioned in connection with llammon and Zidon (Josh, xix, 23). Dr. Kobinson identifies it witli Kana, a large village on the brow of a valley not far soutli-east of the site of Tyre (Research- es, iii, 384), So also Schwarz (Palest, p. 192), Van de Veldc (Memoir, p. 327), and Porter (Handbook for Pal- estine, p. 325, 442). About a mile north of the place is a very ancient site, strewn with ruins, some of them of colossal proportions ; and in the side of a ravine not very far distant are some singular figures of men, wom- en, and children cut on the face of a cliff (Thomson, Land and Book, i, 298). Tristram (Land of Israel, p. 58) regards them as Phoenician. See Inscriptions.
Ancient Tigurea on Rockb at Kiunh
Kandekumaraio, another name for the Hindu
deity known as Kartiiceya (q. v.).
Kaneh. See Eeed.
Kanne, Johann Arnolh, a German mystic, was born at Detniold in 1773, and educated at the gymna- sium of his native city. While but a youth he attempt- ed the restoration of the exceedingly marred text of Varro, De Linr/ua Latina. He studied theology at the University of Gottingen, where the rational exegesis of Eichhorn nearly stifled all his religious belief. From Gottingen he went to Leipsic, thence as a teacher to Hallo, and finally to Berlin. In 1805 he wrote at WUr- temberg a work on the mythology of the Greeks (Wei- mar, 1805). His study of this subject led him to read the Old Testament, and idtimately resulted in the pub- lication of Die erste Urkunde der Geschichte, with a Preface by Jean Paul (1808, 2 vols. 8vo). During the war with the French he joined the PrussfJin army, but Avas captured by the French, from whom he soon es- caped, and then entered the Austrian army. But, pros- trated by disease, he was several times confined in the hospital at Linz, when, through the efforts of Jean Paul and president Jacobi, he was dismissed from the ser- vice. On Jacobi's recommendation, in 1809 he was called to the chair of history in the College of Science at Nuremberg. His sufferings in the army seemed to have accelerated his previous religious decline, and his works published after his appointment at Nuremberg give evidence of his leaning towards extreme rational- ism. He wrote in this period Pantheon der dltesten Naturphilosophie oder die Pelif/ion der Volker (1811) : — Si/stem der Indischen Mythe oder Kronus mid die Ge- schichte des Gotimenschen (1813). He was, however, soon afterwards induced to renounce his antichristian views laid down in these books. He made an attempt to derive all languages from one primitive language in his TrayyXojCTOToi', but his request to king Alexander to aid his jihilological undertaking received no hearing. In Nuremberg his moral and spiritual condition was for a long time a turmoil of conflicting emotions, but the reading of religious writings and elevated conversation with distinguished Christians brought about a spiritual regeneration. In 1818 he was called to the chair of Oriental Utcrature in the University of Erlangen. Here he withdrew from all society, and lived in seclusion from the world, v.holly absorbed in contemplative mysticism.
other significations.
Doubtless his papers would have afforded a clear view of the state of his soul, but, according to his friends, to- wards the close of his Ufe he destroyed aU documents relating to this subject. He died Dec. 17, 1824. His other rehgious works are: Sammlung wahrer und er- u-ecklicher Geschichten aus deni Reiche Christi und fur dasselhe (1815-17, 2 vols. ; 1822, 3 vols.) -.—Leben, und aus dem Leben merkwiirdifjer und erweckter Christen (181G- 17, 2 vols.) : — Fortsetzum/ (1824) : — Romane aus der Christenwelt aller Zeiten (1817) : — Christus iin A.T., or Unte7-suchungen iiberdie Vorbilder undmessianischenStel- len (1818, 2 vols. 8vo) •.—Bihlische Untersuchun/;en oder Auslegungm mit und ohm Polemih (1819-20, 2 vols. 8vo). He edited also the follow- ing: Auserlesene christliche Lieder (Erlang. 1818) : — Weissagungen v. Verheissungen der Kirche Christi avf die letzten Zeiten der Ileiden, — Katholische Real - Enctjklop. v, 1036.
Kanon is one of the names by which the official list or register of tlie Church is known. It is also frequently spoken of as KaraXoyoQ 'itgaTiKoc, list of the priesthood, and lence spiritual persons were denom- inated KavoviKoi, canonici, and ol Tov Kavui'ot;, men of the c««o», be- cause their names were entered in the list. The word kuviov had also The assent of the catechumens to a summary of the leading articles of the Christian faith was required, and this creed was variously designated ; sometimes Kavwv, the rule, sometimes TriariQ, the faith, and sijmbolum, a badge or token (see Kiddie, Christian Antiquities, s. v.). See Canon,
Kanoiise, Peter, a Presbyterian minister, was bom in Boonton, N. J., August 20, 1784, of German descent; was educated for the ministry under Drs. Armstrong and Kichards, and was licensed and ordained in 1822. H(j successively preached at Suckasunna, N. J. ; Ne^vark, N. J. ; Wantage, N. J. ; Newark, N. J. ; Poughkeepsie, N. Y. ; again at Wantage, N. J., and then as a home mis- sionary in Dane Co., Wisconsin. He died May 30, 1864. " He was an able and impressive preacher of the Gos- pel. . . . bearing the ' fruits of the Spirit,' and instru- mental in the conversion of many souls." — AVilson, Prc?- bijterian Hist. A Imanac, 1866, p. 216.
Kansa, in Hindu mytholog}^, is the name of a king of the race of Bhoja — considered also a daemon (Kiila- nemi) in human shape, and notorious for his enmity to- wards the god Krishna [see Vishnu], by whom he was ultimately slain.
Kant, Imjianuel, designated bj' De Maistre " the philosopher of nebulous memory," acquired enduring re- nown as the author of the Critical Philosophy., as the father of the recent German or transcendental specula- tion, and as the most acute and profound metaphysician of the closing 18th century. The importance of his philosophical career is evinced by his furnishing the link of connection between the schools of Leibnitz, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume, and those of Hegel, Scliel- liiig, and Comtc. He closes one great and brilliant era of metaph}'sical inquiry ; he commences another with singular fulness of knowledge, breadth of comprehen- sion, perspicacity of discernment, and logical subtlety and precision. He exposed inveterate errors of proced- ure ; he improved, sharpened, and refined the methods of investigation ; he surveyed and plotted out the boun- daries of metaphysical research ; and he rendered more distinct and precise the nature of the inquiry, the sub- ject with v.liich it is concerned, and the instruments at our command for its investigation. These are inestima- ble services, the benefits of which are experienced even in the midst of the errors that have sprung from the svstem bv which thev were rendered.
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Life. — Kant was born at Kiinigsberg April 22, 1724, and spent his whole lite there or in its immediate neigh- borhood, never having journeyed more than forty miles from his native place. He ended his tranquil life in the city of his birth, February 12, 1804. He was of Scotch origin. His father, John George Cant, removed from Tilsit, where his immigrant grandfather first set- tled, to Ktinigsberg, and followed the saddler's trade with little worldly success. His pinched fortunes were enno- bled by stern and unostentatious integrity. All accounts commemorate the high character, intelligence, and au- stere piety of Anna Kegina Keuter, the philosopher's mother — virtues affectionately attested by her illustrious son, who ascribes all that was best in himself to her ex- ample and instructions, and to the purifying influences of his childhood's home. He lost his mother when he was eleven years of age, his father in his twenty-second year (174G). They lived long enough to transmit to him the memory of their virtuous example — 'twas all they had to bequeath. After receiving the first rudi- ments of education at the charitable schools of the city, he was sent to the Frederick College in 1734, at the ex- pense of his uncle, a substantial shoemaker. Here he remained for seven years under the care of Dr. Schiiltz, an eminent adherent of Wolf, at the time when the AVollian philosophy was a subject of acrimonious contro- versy. He devoted himself chiefly to the classics and mathematics, the essential foundation of all thorough instruction, and had Rulmken for his fellow -student. From the Collef/ium Fredericiumnn he passed in 1740 to the University of Kiinigsberg, and entered upon a course of theology; but his ill success in preaching discouraged him, and he attached himself to the matliematical and physical sciences, in the former of which his first dis- tinction was gained. During the latter period of his university career he supported himself by teaching in the humblest grades, in consequence of the increasing penury of his father, whose death in 1746 compelled him to withdraw from the university, and to seek a living from his own exertions alone. For the nine following years he was employed as a private teacher in or near Kijnigsbcrg, and flnally in the noljle family of Kayscr- ling, by Avhom his merits were appi'eciated, and in whose society he acquired that polish of manner which distin- guished him through life. lie changed his family name of Cant to the more Germanic appellative Kant, but he did not thus divest himself of the Scotch characteristics of mind and morals. In the second year of his engage- ment in private tuition he published his first work, Gedcmken von dcr walrren Scliatziiiir/ de?' lehendujcn Krlifle {Thour/hts on the true Measure of Living Forces, 1747), which was esteemed a valuable contribution to the fa- mous controversy on the subject. In 1754 he discussed the question proposed for a prize by the Berlin Acade- my, Whether the Earth had undergone a>i;j change conse- quent upon its 7-evolution upon its Axis. This essay fa- cilitated his acquisition of the master's degree in the next year. At this time he returned to the universitj- as prirat-doceut, and maintained an uninterrupted con- nection with it thenceforth till the closing years of his life He inaugurated his lectures by the composition of two theses : the first, Be Igni ; the second, IHssertatio de Prina'piis Primis Cognitiouis Ifumancr, which was the first manifestation of the direction of his mind to meta- physical inquiry, and also showed that he had fixed on the central point of all philosoi)hy. While employed in private teaching he had diligently prosecuted his ency- clopxdical stucUes, and had acquired the English lan- guage by his own exertions, in order to master the spec- ulations of Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. Another kin- dred treatise belongs to this year — Priiicipioriiiu Primo- rum Cognitionis Metaphysical Nova. Dducidatio, as also liis Allgemeine Naturgeschiehte nnd Theorie des Ilimimls (^Univeisal Natural History and Theory of the, Hea'r- eni). The last work was issued anonymously, with a dedication to Frederick tlie (ireat. It is remarkable for its bold views, and for aimouncing the probable resolu-
tion of the nebula? into stars, and the probable discovery of new planets — scientific predictions fulfilled in much later years by Ilerschel and Leverrier. Tliis production occasioned a correspondence with Lambert (17G1), the singularly profound president of the Berlin Academy, who espoused similar opinions. For fifteen years (1755- 1770) Kant lectured to private classes in the university. His courses treated "panie de omni scibili," but were marked by a special addition to the physical sciences, and, after 1757, to physical geography, a novel branch r)f knowledge which he continued to expound annually till the close of his academical career. A life so retired as Kant's, and so exclusively occupied with study and the duties of instruction, scarcely offers any events for biography beyond the development of opinions, the jjub- lication of the treatises in which such opinions are set forth, and the academic distinctions attained. The chronicler finds little to report more exciting than Dr. Primrose's migrations "from the blue chamber to the brown," and hence is compelled to mark the critical mo- ments of his career by the notice of the principal wt)rks as they appeared. Such indications, however, have a value of their own, as they reveal the growth of spec- ulations which have moulded the intelligence of the ^^•orld, and mark the times and modes in wliich the rev- olutions of thought have been effected. In 1762 ap- peared Kant's criticism of the Aristotelian logic, in a trea- tise entitled Die falsche Spitzjindigkeit der vier syllogis- tischen Figuren {False Subtlety of the Syllogistic Figures'). The censors of Aristotle have usually misapprehended both his doctrines and his aims, and have imagined to be erroneous dogmas which the Stagyrite had medita- ted more profoundly, and had treated with a juster re- gard to practical convenience than themselves. In the course of the next year, 1763, Kant gave to the public his Der einzig mogliche Beweissgrund zu einer Demonstra- tion des Daseyns Gottes {Ontological Demonstration of the Being of God), in which he repudiated alike the deduc- tions a p)rion of Anselm, Des Cartes, and Clarke, and the inductions a posteriori of the natural theologians, and regarded the conception of the possibility of God as attesting the reality of his existence. This treatise still bears the imjiress of the dominant Wolfian philosophy, which he had imbibed from his early teacher Schultz. In this year he contended for the prize offered by the Berlin Academy, his treatise on the Principles of Nat- ural Theology and Morals {Unteisuchung iiher die Deut- lichkeit der Grundscitze der natiirlicheii Theologie vnd Morcd) receiving the second honors, while the first v.ere adjudged to IMoses IMendelssohn. Three years more elapsed before he received his first public appointment as underkeeper of the Royal Library, with the scant sal- ary of fifty dollars. In this year he exposed the pre- tensions of Swedenborgianism, being always ready to assail new-fangled delusions, whether stimulated by en- thusiasm or by imposture. At length, when ajiproach- ing the end of his forty-seventh year, he was promoted to the chair of logic and metaphj-sics in his own uni- versity, with a stipend of three hundred dollars. He had suffered two previous disappointments. He had failed to obtain the professorship extraordinary of logic in 1756, and the ordinary professorship in 1758, and had declined the professorship of poetry in 17G4,froin distrust of his aptitudes and acquirements. He had refused in- vitations from Erlangen and Jena, from reluctance to abandon his people and his native home.
Custom demanded an inaugural dissertation from the professor elect. Kant's subject was De 3/undi AS'ensibi/is atqne Intelligibilis Forma et Principiis. This essay con- tained the first distinct anticipations of his characteristic system, though his philosophj- did not receive form or coherent development for many ensuing years. The re- mainder of his life was, however, consecrated to its defi- nite constitution and exposition. It early began to as- sume shape, for in 1772 he smoothed the way for a full- er discussion by his Scheme of Transcendental Philoso- phy. No desire of change, no temptation of worldly ad-
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vancement and honor could seduce him from his calm lu- cubrations. He refused to go to Halle, though a double salary was offered him. After eleven years of patient meditation he produced in 1781 his Critique oftkePure Reason {Kritik dev reiiien Vernunft), which proclaimed a ne^v philosophy, and ushered in a new cycle of specu- lation— norm ordo Sicclorum metaphysicoruin. The work was modified in a second edition in 1787, to obviate the imputation of idealism and idealistic infidelity objected to it as to the previous system of Wolf. It long seemed as if this remarkable production — a revolution itself, and the parent of revolutions — woidd never reach a second edition. For six years it lay so unheeded on the jnib- lisher's shelves that he contemplated disposing of it as waste paper, when a sudden demand relieved his anxie- ties, and rendered a republication expedient. This time- ly uiterest in the book was scarcely due to Kant's Pro- legomena to Metaphysics {Prolegomena zu eiiier jeden kiinflvjen Metaphysik, die als Wissenschaft wird aiiflre- ten Iconnen, 1783), but may be attributed to striking no- tices of the doctrine in prominent German magazines. In 1785 the practical side of his system was exposed in his Metaphysics of Ethics {Grmidler/ung zur Metaphysik der Sitten), and in the following year its extension to physical speculation was attempted in his Metaphysics of Natural Science (^Metaphysische A ufanr/sgriiiule der Naturwissenschaft). In 1788 the positive aspect of his philosophy was presented in the Critique of the Practical Reason {Kritik der praktischenVei-nunf), which treats of the principles and objects of the moral law, and con- structs ethics on the formula, Act so that your principle of action may serve as a universal law. The foimdation is narrow, and has the cold rigidity of Stoical pretension, but it was a stern and strict rule in the conception of its propounder, and was borrowed from his own line of conduct, and from the austere virtues of his parental home, as much as from the dictates of his reason. The defects of this canon will be indicated hereafter. The outline of the new philosophy was completed in 1790 by the Critique of the Practical Judgment {Kritik der Ur- tkeikkraft), which is in some respects the most satis- factory work of the series. It is designed to unit j the practical with the theoretical reason, the freedom of the wUl witii the law of existence, by regarding the whole order of creation as a system of means effectually adapt- ed to the attainment of benelicent aims. It is thus a tractate of teleology or of final causes. It is principally occupied with the theory of the beautiful and the sub- lime, and is in great measure a development of the Ob- servations on the Beautiful and the Sublime {Beobach- tunrjen iiber das Gefiihl des Schonen und Erhabenen, 17C4), and the Metaphysics of Ethics (1785).
Kant's metaphysics had thus been exhibited by him- self in all its principal applications. It had attracted general notice; it had gathered around it numerous and enthusiastic disciples; it had secured for its author pro- found respect and earnest admiration. Distinguished men flocked to his lectures ; princes and sovereigns com- missioned learned scholars to hear his teacliings and to report his doctrines. His life was surroiuided witli case, and his days were crowned with honor. His salary had been increased, and had given what was wealth to one of his simple tastes and frugal habits. He liad been twice appointed rector of the university. His industri- ous and meditative career had passed its grand climac- teric, and was stretching serenely to its close. Just when the aims of life appeared to have been won, Kant was plunged into the only serious troubles wliich dis- turbed liis tranquil existence. He became involved in a grave religious controversy bj'^ some articles in a Ber- lin magazine, afterwards reproduced in a volume under the title of Religion within the Limits of Pure Reason Sfiie Religion inner halb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft, 1793). There was a ferment in the religious circles of Germany at this time, and Kant's philosophy had early excited alarms which appeared now to be justified. A doctrine which rejected the accepted arguments for the
being of God, the validity of revelation, the immortality of the soul, and the creation of the world, offended too many convictions, unsettled too many inveterate habits of thought, and substituted too shadowy and too ab- stract si)eculations for accredited precepts and dogmas, not to produce discontent and censure. Nor were the alarms entertained unreasonable, as was shown by the subsequent developments of the transcendental philoso- phy. The agitation excited by Kant's theological in- novations was partially allayed by a royal mandate di- recting him to observe silence on religious topics. The king's interference is supposed to have been induced by Kant's sympathies with the French Revolution, despite of the Reign of Terror. On the death of the king in 1797 he resumed his expositions, considering his engage- ment as a personal one with that monarch. But before this time he had narrowed the sphere of his activity. In 179i he withdrew from general society; in 1795 he discontinued aU his instructions except in logic and met- aphysics, and he closed his ifcademic labors altogether two years afterwards. In 1798 he composed his Strife of the Faculties {Der Sireit der Facultdten), reviving the religious dispute in which he had been entangled ; and he bade farewell to the public in his Pragmatical View of Anthropology {Anthropologic in pragmatischer Hin- sicht). The last work from his o\vn pen was a protest against Fichte's doctrine, which gave to the new philos- ophy the subjective or idealistic cast, against which his own -efforts had always been strenuously directed. In this paper were manifested his own failing powers, and his incapacity to appreciate other systems than his own — a natural consequence of his habitual disregard of the history of speculation. His pupils published several other works from his notes and papers during the last years of his life. Tliat life was not long extended after his retirement. His constitution gradually broke up; his health, so remarkably maintained, began to decline; appetite, teeth, strength, sight, voice, memory, all failed, and his pure, laborious, and honorable existence was ter- minated by an apopleetic attack, Feb. 12, 180i, vvdicn he had nearly completed his eightieth year. His death produced profound emotion throughout Germany. The whole city of Kiinigsbcrg put on mourning; multitudes flocked to liis funeral, and his remains were escorted to the grave by a solemn procession. A characteristic medal was struck to commemorate his fame. It liore an emblem and a motto appropriate to his doctrine, " Altius volantem coercuit." He was worthy of such honor. He left to his countrs'men the example of a career rich in wholesome fruits — simple, sincere, upright, laborious; devoted singly to the promotion of tnith, and to tlie re- moval of error in the highest and most perDous regions of speculation, illustrated by seventy years of unbroken industry, and by half a century faithfully given to tjie instruction of successive generations of the young in va- rious branches of learning, from the humblest rudiments of knowledge to tlio mostrccondite metaphysical research. Humble, modest, and true, his life was a nobler crown to his memory than all the honors that men could bestow. In person, Kant was small and delicately built. His blue eyes expressed benevolence, but his features were rugged, and seamed with the lines of habitual thought. Lavater mistook his portrait for that of a noted high- wajTiian. His manners were kindly and courteous. He was very genial in company, full of mirth and innocent wit, and scrupulously abstinent of learned or metajihys- ical discourse. As a lecturer he was easy and attrac- tive, displaying nothing of the repulsive aridity and elaborate awkwardness of his philosophical treatises. He was a reverential observer of all truth, and rigid in the practice of all justice. The like precise projiriety regulated all his habits. He was plain in his tastes, ab- stemious in eating and drinking, chary of indulgences, frugal in his expenditures, methodical in every arrange- ment. " Early to bed anil early to rise" was the rule of his hfe. His hour for rising was four in summer and live in winter; fur bed, ten in summer and nine in win-
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ter. By tliis regularity and moderation he reached ful- ness of years with liealth, cheerfulness, and perfect se- renity. He seems to have been deficient in i)oetic sen- sibihty and poetic imajjinatiou. To this defect may be ascribed several imperfections in the exposition of his philosophy, and his total want of religious sentiment. Shortly before his death he declared that he had no de- terminate notion of a future state, but was inclined to believe in metempsychosis. This was the Haw in his mental and moral constitution which produced many flaws in his speculation.
Like his illustrious contemporary Hume, whom he sur\ived nearly thirty years, Kant Avas never married. He gave no '' hostages to fortune," but illustrated Ba- con's dictum, that " the best works, and of greatest merit for the public, have proceeded from unmarried or child- less men." Of the works constituting Kant's bequest to posterity, the most noted and important are those that expountl the " Critical Philosophy," and of this philoso- phy a brief notice remain.* to be given.
Philosophy — Kant's scheme of speculation is so com- prehensive, so extensive, so intricate, so systematic, so full of divisions and subdivisions, that it is impossible to attempt any complete summary of it within the limits al- lowed by this article. Not the fullest, but the most com- pact mode of exposition is required. Hence the notice of tlie numerous treatises not directly employed in the construction of the " Critical Philosophy" has been in- troduced into the biographical sketch. Hence, too, the reader wlio desires a formal outline of the system must be referred to some of the numerous synoptical views presented in German, French, English, and Latin. All that can be aimed at here will be to give a cursory ac- count of the distinctive peculiarities of Kant's scheme. To do this, it may suffice to explain his relation to pre- vious philosophy, to point out his characteristic method, and to note the cliief developments and applications of that method.
To show the exact relation of Kant to antecedent and contemporary modes of spocidation woidd require a detailed account of the fortunes of philosophy from Ba- con, and Gassondi, and Des Cartes. This is'more than has been attempted by Rosenkranz. It must suffice to state that in the middle of the 18th century the Wolfian deyeloiiment and systematization of the philosophy of Leibnitz was predominant in Germany; the scepticism of Hume perplexed and alarmed Britain ; and the mate- rialism of D'Alembert, Diderot, and Condillac was fash- ionable in France. The philosophy of Leibnitz was an effort to escape the pantheistic tendencies of Cartesian- ism as evolved in the idealism of Spinoza and the the- osophism of JNLalebranche. Hume's philosophy was the sceptical evolution of the sensationalism of Locke, gener- ated by the collision between the mechanicism of Hartley and the Pyrrhonism of Berkeley. The infidel doctrine of the school of the French Eiicyclopnsdia was the superfi- cial deduction of the French intellectual anarchists from the partial appreciation of the tenets of Locke, whose own princii>les were vague and incoherent. The prob- lem presented for solution was to find some ground of conciliation between all these divergent opinions, to de- tect and expose the fallacies on which they rested, to avoid the mischiefs caused or portended by them, and to discover a trustworthy and intelligible basis for human knowleilge. The situation was in many respects anal- ogous to that which characterized the Hellenic world at the time of Socrates. Kant undertook the investiga- tion of this arduous and urgent problem, and, like Soc- rates, he proceeded by the critical investigation of the nature of knowledge and of the intellectual faculties of man. By this procedure he was gradually led to the determination of the conditions of the problem, and to the discovery of a solution partially true, and which ap- peared to himself complete and irrefragable. In meta- physics the method is the philosophy, and Kant's jneth- od gave to his system the appropriate name of the Crit- ical I'hilosophy.
It must be remembered that Kant's early guide was Schultz, an earnest partisan of "Wolf; that Kant pro- ceeils from the Wolfian, that is, from the methodical LeibniJ;zian School; that he slowly emerges from the Wolfian circle, and that Wolfian characteristics may be traced throughout the whole construction of his scheme.
The response made by Leibnitz to the thesis of Locke
— " Nihil est in intellectu (juod non prius in sensu" a
dogma by no means Aristotle's, and only virtually Locke's —furnishes the key-note to the whole philosophy of Kant. " Nisi intellectus ipse," replied Leibnitz ; "thus distinguishing the faculty of thought from the impres- sions it receives, and offering a refutation at once of both the sceptical and the materialistic followers of Locke. The same just discernment may be found in Aristotle, though it has been little noticed (.1 nul/jt. Post. ii, xix). What was required was the discovery of some principle of intelligence, some interjiretation of the pro- cess of human thought, which woidd withdraw the mind of man from the arbitrary government of a ProA-idential compulsion, a blind necessity, or a mechanical regula- tion by material constitution or by external chance. Kant sought this principle in the constitution and limi- tations of the human mind. He analyzed the products and the processes of thought. He found that in every pcrcejition, in every judgment, in every generalization, the mind communicated something of its own to what was presented as the object of knowledge ; that in every apprehension, what was apprehended was moulded and determined by the intelligence which apprehended it. To use the language of the school, the form of knowl- edge was necessarily imposed by the constitution of the cognizant mind. This* seems to have been the doctrine of Aristotle (jriv ■ipi'XJjv tlvai totzov tlSuv, Be Anhn, iii, iv), and was deduced from his teachings by his scho- liast, Asclepius.
It was slowly that Kant reached this conclusion, which became very prolific in his hands. He tells us that it was due to the examination of Hume's denial of any nexus between cause and effect, which of course re- duced the universe to a disconnected dream, and ren- dered all knowledge the mere aggregate of impressions fortuitously succeeding each other. He found that the same difficidty which had been exposed by Hume in re- gard to cause and effect existed in the case of all syn- thetic judgments « priori, or those which unite two un- connected conceptions in one proposition. Truth was thus deprived of all valiility, and experience became fallacy. How could a firm fomidation be attained? Was experience as hollow, and spectral, and delusive as it had been represented by Hume ? Three questions presented themselves for solution, each corresponding to a distinct branch of metaphysical inquiry : " What can I know?" "What ought I to do?" "What may I hope for?" The answer to the first question, which was the investigation of the nature of knowledge and of the na- ture of the mind, was given in the Critique of the Pure Reason. The answer to the second, wdiich embraced the theory of duty, was propounded in the Critique of the Practical Reason. The answer to the third, which con- templated the summum honum under a jieculiar aspect, was presented in the Critique of the Judf/mcnt — a very ambiguous designation. This distinction of subjects and division of treatises sprung from the distribution of the matter of philosophy then prevalent in Gemiany. The distribution had itself descended from Aristotle {^tioiu]- TiKi) yap Ktti TrpaKrtK}) Kai 7ron)TiK}) Xiyirai scil. t—i- a-rjf^tt]. — Top. vi, C ; comp. Metaph. v, 1 ; xi, 7 ; xii, 9).
(1) The Critique of the Pure Reason contains the es- sence of Kant's philosophy. It exhibits his method, illustrates his procedure, and presents his fundamentid conchisions. The conception of the Pure IJcason is in great measure his own, though both the name and what is denoted by the name are found in previous systems (Plotinus, Ennead. v, 3, 3; Leibnitz, Theod. § 1 ; Nouv. Ess. ii, iv, § 3). The pure reason is reason in its essential constitution — iv Cvvafiu, not iv ivtpyiia — the think-
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ing faculty in its adaptation to thought — erapty of the matter of thought, and distinct from its experiences. It is the mill witliout the grain which is to be ground by it. In analyzing the principle of thought, Kant detects an active as well as a passive factor. In every act of thought there is the reception of the impression from the object of thought, and the subjective reaction there- by excited, which reaction communicates the rational form to the conclusum, and differentiates to vovf^itvov, the subject of thought, from ro ^atvuyu£vo»', the object of thought.
Kant cUstinguishes the agencies which supply the materials of knowledge into three — sense, understand- ing, reason. The distribution of the faculties of the mind is always hazardous, and often beguiling. The mind is one and comjilcte. In the perceptions of sensa- tion, the elements derived from the mind, and not from the impression, are space and time. Such elements are called transcendental because they transcend, precede, and formulate the experience. They are consequently the forms or conditions of sensations. They are not supplied by the sensation, but they are added to it by the mind in the act of perception. There arc indica- tions of this doctrine in Plotiuus (^/mear?. ii, 7, 9), Leib- nitz (Nouv. Ess. liv. ii, chap, v), and in other writers. It is intimated, indeed, by Aristotle, and is a natural de- duction from the Ideas of Plato. It is singularly cor- roborated by recent expositions of the physiology of nervous action. In Kant's theory the phenomena of the external world are all sulyect to the conception of space, the phenomena of the mind to the conception of time. The sensationalist is thus refuted, as space and time are not obtained from sensation. The dogmatic idealist is refuted, as the matter of knowledge must be supplied by external impressions.
The understanding co-ordinates the perceptions of sense, and forms them into judgments by giving to them unity and interdependence. The transcendental elements supplied in this action of tlie understanding are arranged by Kant in twelve categories. The name of categories is taken from the Organon of Aristotle, but Kant's categories are entirely diverse from Aristotle's. Kant observed that metaphysical science pursued a de- lusive round, without making progress or securing sta- bility, while logic had received full, complete, and defi- nite form from its great founder. He ascribed this dif- ference of fortune to the fact that logic was simply the exposition of tlie procedure of the mind in reasoning, and he concluded that equal validity would be conferred on metaphysics, if it were reduced to an accurate repre- sentation of the procedure of the mind in the acquisition and employment of the materials of knowledge. Hence he invented a forced analogy between the two branches of speculation, and rendered his theory intricate, arbi- trary, and obscure by compelling it to assume a form fantastically corresponding with logical distinctions. In this spirit he devised his twelve categories, and ar- ranged them according to the forms of propositions, in the manner exhibited in the following table :
I-op:ic.il. Transcendental.
^Universal. Uuitj'.
I. Quantity -(Particular. Plurality.
(.Singular. Totality.
rAfflrmative. Keality.
II. Quality < Negative. Negation.
(indeterminate. Limitation.
^Categorical. ^ Substance.
III. Relation J. Hypothetical. Cause.
(Disjunctive. Reciprocity.
( Problematical. Possibility.
IV. Modality ^ Assertory. Existence.
(Apodeictlc. Necessity.
All judgments are framed by the mind under the in- fluence of these categories, four of them — one from each class — being inevitably applied in every instance. As, however, things are thus seen, not as they are, but as the intellectual predispositions make them appear to be — knowledge is purely relative to the human mind — ob- jective truth is not attainable, and all oiu: experiences
or knowledge have only a subjective validity. The mind cannot think except so far as it has been ])rovoked by objective stimulation, therefore there is a real objec- tive existence of things. It thinks under the control of the categories of the understanding, therefore knowl- edge is subjective in form, is moulded by the recipient mind, and cannot be known to correspond to the reality of things. The image is reflected from the mirror, but the object represented may be magnified or diminished, or strangely distorted by the character of the mirror, without being altered in itself. The image is aU that constitutes knowledge ; there is, accordingly, no assur- ance of agreement between the image and the object. Thus all knowledge is conditional only — conditioned by the forms of the understanding, which mould it into the form in which it is received. Some principle was re- quired to give coherence, vmity, confidence to the rela- tive knowledge obtained through such mental experi- ences. This was supposed to be given by the conscious- ness of personality which boimded, adunated, and har- monized all the qualified judgments that could be enter ■ tained. It seems a misapprehension on the part of Kant, and at variance with his system, to claim any necessary truth for judgments formed in this manner. There can be nothing more than a relative or contin- gent necessity — an impossibility of thinking otherwise than tlie constitution of the mind necessitates.
In the higliest region of the mind — the reason or the faculty of ideas — there is also subjection of the matter of knowledge to transcendental forms. But the func- tions of the reason pass beyond the limits of experience, and are only regulative. In this branch of the sulyect, which is designed to explain the combination of the judgments of the understanding into ratiocinative con- clusions, Kant introduces three pure ideas, which are deemed to be analogous to the three forms of the syllo- gism— categorical, h j'pothetical, and disj unctive. These ideas are, 1. Absolute unity, or simple being, the soul, which gives origin to Rational Psychology ; 2. Absolute totality, the aggregate of phenomena in space and time, the world, which'is the basis of Cosmology ; and, 3. Ab- solute reality, supreme existence, the First Cause, which is the subject of Theology. From this point the later German schools diverge by ascribing a real and not simply a subjective validity to the forms of the abso- lute. With Kant they are merely postulates of reason, having no assured objective existence. Rational psy- chology only exhibits the phenomena of mental con- sciousness without guaranteeing anything in regard to the essential nature of the mind or to the immortality of the soul. Itational cosmology is equally unable to at- tain to any positive knowledge in regard to the creation. It lands us finally in four pairs of transcendental ideas, each pair producing twin contradictions. These are Kant's celcljrated antinomies : 1. In cpiantity, it may be proved that the world is both limited and unlimited ; 2. In quality, that its elements are ultimately simple and infinitely divisible ; 3. In relation, tliat it is caused by free action, and by an infinite series of mechanical causes ; 4. In modalit}-, that it has an independent cause, and that it is composed of interdependent members. Which- ever of these alternatives be asserted, it cannot be ex- clusively maintained, for it results in hopeless paralo- gisms: Both must be in some sense true, yet both can- not be simultaneously entertained, because they are con- tradictory. Hence no certainty, no complete compre- hensive knowledge can be attained. Metaphysics is simply inquisitive, speculative, critical, showing the lim- itations of the human mind, and the impossibility of knowing the reality of things, but at the same time fur- nishing glimpses of a reality which the mind can not compass — of existence and truth beyond the range of finite comprehension. It is the confession, if not the demonstration of the intellectual weakness of man. The same negative result is reached in rational theology. The ontological argument for the being of (iod — that of Anselm and Des Cartes, derived from the notion of per-
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feet and indopendcnt existence — the cosmological argu- ment of Clarke, which proceeds from tlie eonceijlion of contingent to that of necessary being — and the pliysico- teleological argument of the natural theologians, wliich infers a supreme intelligent Designer from the evidences of design in the creation, are all equally inconclusive. " Thus the soul, the world, and God are left by Kant's speculative philosophy as problems not only unsolved, but demonstrably unsolvable." To fiirnisli a positive support for convictions on this subject indispensable for human guidance, and to give an authoritative rule for action, Kant constructed his ethical systems.
(2) Critique of the Practical Reason. — Neither the name nor the conception of the practical reason was a novelty; both occur in Aristotle {Be Anim. iii, 10; 6 /uj' yiip SEwpj/riKoc vovg o'uMv votl irpoKruv, ibid. c. ix\ They are found in Acpiinas (Summ. Theol. ii, 1, 00, and especially 91,3), in Roger Bacon {Opus Majus, p. 35, 44), and in most philosophers, mediaeval and modern, who have accepted the Aristotelian doctrine. What- ever systems have recognised a moral sense, whatever theories have admitted a sustaining and guiding illumi- nation of the conscience, whatever schemes acknowl- edge the inworking spirit, and whatever exi:)ositions of the mysteries of man assume an abidnig faith as the foundation of moral action, entertain substantially the same fundamental doctrine as Kant's, though it is dif- ferently expanded and applied by them. The charac- teristic feature of Kant's ethical system is what he terms the " Cdtefforical Imperative." Speculative philosophy aflFords neither absolute truth nor certain guidance. Practical philosophy rests upon the enlightened con- science— enlightened by its own indwelling light. Tlie " categorical imperative" is a rule of action — a moral law deriving its authority from itself — intuitively received — determining action by the idea — governing by the ra- tional form, not by the matter — thus advancing to the realm of the absolute, the unconditional, the noumenal, and passing from the shadows of sjieci'Iation to the real- ities of action and duty. The formula of this " categor- ical imperative" is. Act so that your action ma}' be ap- plied as a universal rule. It is obvious that a precept so vague and so abstract may represent an essential characteristic or property of right conduct, but cannot be accepted as its principle. It is indefinite, and it wants the authority of sovereign command. It would require the omniscient comprehension of all contempo- raneous relations, and all possible consequences for the regulation of e\-ery act, and at best would result in transcendental utilitarianism. It is too abstruse to be promptly and habitually applied to all the occurrences of life, and by all grades of men. It is limited to finite intelligences, and is sufficiently elastic to allow each one's ignorance or obtuse conscience to be alleged as the individual rule of right. It might easily be stretched so as to sanction the Donatist thesis, " (Juicquid libet, licet." On such a scheme, to employ the expression of Lyly's Euphues, " it is the disposition of the mind that altereth the nature of the thing." Our morals would be shifting and casuistical. The wish would continually be the father to the thought; and all enthusiasm, all fa- naticism, all monomania might be presented as the can- on of order. The conception of duty is the touchstone and stumliling-block of pliilnsojihy, and against it is shattered every scheme which does not rest upon the acceptance of revelation, and the acknowledgment of God, '' in whom we live, and move, and ha\'e our being." There is no other mode of passing the chasm which sep- arates the negative results of sjieculative inipiiry from the positive requirements of practical action. Specula- tive |>hil()S(>]iliy discusses the l)iiuiidaries of tlie mind; practical jiliilosophy is concerned with actions which are infinite in their consequences, and whose eH'ects " wan- der through eternity."
(3) T/ie Critique of the ,Tu(lfjmenC{Urtheihh-aft — Fac- ulty of .Judgment). — This is the tliird of the systematic treatises devoted to the construction of the critical phi-
losophy. The designation is infelicitous and ambigu- ous. The Iwaf/iiiation would be more appropriate, but would scarcely be applicable without some violence to the whole scope of the inquiry proposed. The depart- ment corresponds to the tTrictr/j/u?/ TroirjTiKi}, or construc- tive science of the peripatetic distribution of knowledge- and connects the domain of the pure with that of the practical reason. The imagination is the faculty of con- ciliation— of re-creation — uniting in emotional delight the obligations of action with the highest discoveries of speculation. In Kant's critique of the judgment are included the doctrine of the beautiful and the sublime, or a;sthetics, and the doctrine of final causes, or teleology. His theory of beauty accords in substance with that of Plato, or rather that of Plotinus, but from his own singu- lar defect of imagination, and consequent limitartion of view, it is denied the completeness, splend( r, and fulness of far-reaching suggestion which illustrate that magnif- icent exposition of the grandest and most recondite sub- ject of metaphysical speculation. In beauty. Kant con- templates only the latent beneficent design, the harmony of means and ends, without dwelling upon the more sig- nificant conception of the primordial plan, the archety- pal perfection, from which the whole creation has de- clined, but towards which man's ideal ever strives to re- turn. The terms in which the doctrine is expounded are often confused and indistinct, but the essential prin- ciple of beauty, which is not in things, but in the mind, is the intuitive perception of the concord between the ideal perfection suggested and the order of the universe observed. The principle of the sublime is the intuition of the discrepance between the finite powers of man and the infinite towards which he aspires, producing pain from the sense of lunitation, but exaltation from yearn- ing towards the limitless, beyond sense and conception, which is felt to be his natural home, his ultimate desti- nation. In the discussion of teleology proper Kant en- deavors to restore some efficacy to that reasoning from final causes which in earlier treatises he had repudiated. This part of the subject is inadequately unfolded, but it presents many vast and suggestive views, and in some sort prepares the way for the last of Kant's treatises which can be specially noticed here.
(4) Relu/ion within the Limits of Pure Reason, — This is Kant's theology, and is the most unsatisfactory of aU his efforts. It was an attempt to reconstruct the foun- dations of religious belief, which had been sapped and in great measure overthrown by his critical investiga- tions. It was the work of his old age, and at all periods of his life he seems to have been at least as deficient in religious sentiment as in emotional imagination, which is closely aUied to it. The work provoked much oppo- sition at the time of its appearance, and caused the only serious annoyance of his life. It scandalized many re- ligions minds, it was dangerouslj' consonant Avith the revolutionarj' infidelity of France, and it presented the point of departure for the German rationalism of the 19th centurj% It treats the revelations of Scripture in regard to the fall of man, to his redemption, and to his restoration as a moral allegon,', the data for which are supplied by the consciousness of depravity, and of dere- liction from the strict principles of duty. It is Strauss in the germ. It is utterly inconsistent Avith any scheme of religion, and serves to show Kant's profound sense of the insulHciency of his own doctrine for the solution of the highest enigmas of humanity. The ttou (xrui — the solid locus standi was wanting to his elaborate system. The philosophy was wholly critical in its procedure, and negative in its results. It weakened or undermined those intuitive convictions— inexplicable, but irrefraga- ble—which enable man " to walk by faith, and not by sight."
This notice is too brief to allow the exhibition of the incongruities or fallacies of the transcendental sj-stem, or the suggestion of rectifications, as it has been too brief for any detaile<l account of the several p.irts of his com- plex and elaborate scheme. That scheme is a wonder-
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KARAITES
fill monument of patient industrj', acute discernment, perspicacious analysis, and of bold and honest thought. It was soon felt to be unsatisfactory, and it engendered new swarms of speculative heresies ; but its influences must be souglit in Rosenkranz's history of Kant's doc- trine, and in other treatises on the history of German speculation.
Literature. — The bibliography of Kant's philosophy would make the catalogue of an extensive Ubrarj-, and would include nearly everything in the highest branch- es of metaphysics which has ajjpeared since tlie pubU- cation of the Critique of Pure Reason. In all the gen- eral histories of modern specidation, much space is of course conceded to this suVyect. The following treatises may be examined with advantage. Kant, Wei'ke, of course. The best editions are that of Hartenstein (Leip- zig, 1838-9, 10 vols.), and that of Rozenkranz and Sclui- bert (Leipzig, 18i0-42, 11 vols.), including a fidl biogra- phy-of the philosopher by Schubert, and an elaborate appreciation of the relations and influences of the phi- losophy by Rosenkranz. It gives also a chronological catalogue of Kant's multifarious writings. Recent trans- lations into English are those of his Critik of Pure Rea- son, by Hayward (Lond. 1848, 8vo), and by Meiklejohn (Lond. 1856, 8vo) ; of his 31et(iplii/sics of Ethics, by Sem- ple (Lond. 1850, 8vo) ; of his Theory of Relif/ion, by the same (Lond. 1858, 8vo). There are biographies by Bo- rowsky (1804 : this was revised by Kant) ; by Wasian- sky, his private secretary, giving an account of liis last years (1804); by Jachmann (1804); by Hasse (1804); and the ablest by Kunotisclien of Jena (1800). For the appreciation of the doctrine the following works may be consulted: Nitzsch, Genei-al and Introductorn View (Lond. 1790) ; Schmidt-Phiseldek, Expositio Philosoph. Crit. (Hafa. 1790); Jlellin, Encydop. Diet, of the Kan- tian Philogoph'i (1797, 6 vols.); Vi^i\[\ch. Elements of the Critical Philosophy (London, 1798); Yiilers, Philosophic de Kant (jMetz, 1801) ; Degerando, Hist. Comp. de Phi- losophie (Paris, 1804) ; Wirgman, Principles of the Kan- tesian Philosophy (London, 1824 — a recomposition of an able article contributed to the Encyclopwdia Londinen- sis in 1812); Cousin, /.efo«s sur la Philosophie de Kant (Paris, 1842 ; translated by A. G. Henderson, Lond. 1871, 8vo) ; ^livciXiJch, Sketches of Modern Philosophy (1842); Barchou de Penhoen, //ts<. f?e la Phil. Allemande depuis Leibnitz jusqua Ilegel (Paris, 1837, 2 vols.) ; Erdmann, Gesch. der neueren Philosophie ; Michelet, Geschichte des letzten Systems ; Willra, Histoire de la Philosophie A lle- mande (Paris, 1847, 4 vols.) ; Morell, Philosophy of the Idth Century (1848) ; Chalybteus, Histor. Entwicktlun/j d. spekulatifen Philosophie von Kant his Her/el (4th edit. Leipz. 1848) ; E. Remhold, Gesch. d. Philos. (4th ed. Jena, 1854), vol. iii ; Lewes, History Philos. (3d ed. 1871, 2 vols. 8vo), vol. ii; Hurst's Hagenbach, CAm/t/i Ilist. ISth and mh Ce«f. (N. York, 1870, 2 vols.Svo), lect.iv, sq.; Far- rar, Crit. Hist, of Free Thought. Very instructive no- tices of Kant and his philosophy are contained in tlie North British Revieir, vol. x, the Encyclopmdia Bi'itan- nica, and in Apjileton's A merican Cyclopmlia. The crit- icisms of Dugald Stewart in the Supplement to tlie Ency- clop. Brifannira are wholly unsatisfactory. (G. F. H.)
Kantoplatonism, the French term for a new mode of philosophizing which inclines to Idealistn (q. v.). The Kantoplatonists are considered an offspring of the Platonic and Kantian schools of philosopliy. The representative of Kantoplatonism is Cousin (q. v.).
Kanute. See Denmark.
Kaphar. Sec Kepiiar.
Kapharnaites. See Lord's Supper; Transub-
STANTIATION.
Kapila, the reputed author of the Sdnkhya (q. v.), one of the philosophical systems of the Hindus. As to the origin of Kapila, Hindu tradition is ratlier vague. Among his followers he is by some described as a son of Brahma, and by others, especially liis later followers, as an incarnation of Vishnu. He is also recomited to v.— B
have been bom as the son of Devahuti, and, again, is identified with one of the agnis or fires. Finally, it is said that there existed, in fact, two Kapilas — the first an embodiment of Vishnu ; the other, the igneous prin- ciple in human disguise. The probability is that Ka- pila was simply, like the great majority of his educated countrymen, a Brahman. Spence Hardy (Manual of Buddhism, p. 132) quotes a legend by which it may be shown that the Hindus regarded Buddha as a later ex- istence of our Kapila, and that therefore Buddliism is the Sankhj'a philosophy modified; but professor I\lax 31 tiller rejects this theorj^, and says that he has looked in vain for any similarities between the system of Kapila, as known to us in the Sankhya-sutras, and the Abhidhar- ma, or the metaphysics of the Buddhists. He adds, however, that if any similarity of the two systems could be established, such proofs would be very valua- ble. " They would probably enable us to decide whether Buddlia borrowed from Kapila, or Kapila from Buddha, and thus determine the real chronology of the philo- sophical literatiu-e of India, as either prior or subse- quent to the Buddhist a3ra." See Professor J. E. Hall, Bibliotheca Tndica, Sunkhyapr. p. 14 sq. ; Ballantyne, Lecture on the Sankhya Philosophy [Mirzapore, 1850] ; Hardwick, Christ and other Masters, i, 208 sq. ; Max Miiller, Chips from a German Workshop, i, 223 sq. See also Sankhva.
Kapitorists, a sect of the Russian Church. See Russian Ciiurcii.
Karaites (Ileb. D'^XIp, Karaim, i. e. Readers) is the name of one of the oldest and most remarkable sects of the Jewish synagogue, whose distinguishing tenet is strict adherence to the letter of the written law (i. e. sa- cred writings of the O. T.), and utter disregard of the authority of the oral law or tradition (q. v.).
Ori'/in. — Up to our own day it has been impossible to determine the age in which the Karaites originated; certain it is that they existed before the 8th centiuA", to which their origin was formerly assigned. The Kara- ites themselves claim to be the remains of the ten tribes led captive by Shalmaneser, The Rabbins (c. g. Aben- Ezra, Maimonides, etc.) unjustly assert that this sect is identical with the Sadducees (comp. Rule, Karaites, p. viii), and that they -were originated by Ahnan (about A.D. G40), because the latter was ignored in the election of a new Resh-Gelutha (q. v.) ; but the investigations of our day lead us to believe that the Karaites must have originated immediately after the return of the Jews from Babylonian captivity, although they did not organize into a distinct sect until after the collection of oral tra- dition, and that for this, and no other reason, we find no mention of them as such in the New-Test, writings,, nor in those of Josephus and Philo. Upon the comple- tion of the Talmud it is well known that a great agita- tion prevailed in the Jewish communitj', especially in the western synagogues, and particularly at Constanti- nople, where, on the ides of February, A.D. 529, Justin- ian was obliged to interfere, and actually prohibited the- reading of the Jlishna in the sj-nagogue. In the con- version of the Khazars (q. v.) to Judaism, the Karaites,, as we leani from the Sepher Chozri [see Judah Ha- Levi], already appear as a distinct sect. From inscrip- tions collected and examined by Abraham Firkovitch, the celebrated Russian Jew, within tlie last twenty' years, there are indications that in the Crimea at least Kara- ites may have flourished as early as the first half of the 4th century (compare Rule, p. 83 ; N. Y. Nation, June 7, 1800). The external unity, however, of the Jewish Church was not broken apparently imtU the time of Ahnan ben-David. It is true, even in the days of Christ, the internal peace of the Jewish fold was much disturbed ; synagogues ditTered greatly from each other,, but ostensibly these differences were provoked only by ignorance of the Hebrew, and the introduction of Greek and other foreign idioms; on doctrines and discipline there seemed to reign universal harmonv. Not so after
KARAITES
18
KARAITES
the publication of the Talmud. Tliore were many who inclined to jiay strict ckfercnce only to the inspired writings of the 0. T. ; and when, in the middle of the 8th centurj', a Luther in the form of Ahnan ben-David arose in the Jewish midst and declared his opposition to the Kabbinites, a party was formed in his favor at Je- rusalem itself, which soon extended throughout Pales- tine, and even far away through all the East, as well as towards the West. The jjcrsonal history of this great Jewish reformer is rather obscured by the fables of Arabs, and the calumnies of some Kabbinites ; and it re- mains to be settled whether, as the Karaites assert, he ■was born at Beth-tsur, near Jerusalem (and of the lineage of king David), or in Beth-tsur (Bazra) on the Tigris, and consequently imbibed his reformatory notions from the Arabian or Persian dissenters from IMohammedanism known as MutazilHes (q. v.). Certain it is, however, that at the time of the election of a new Resh-Geluiha Ahnan must have enjoyed some distinction, or he could never have presented claims for the office of '' leader in Israel." In the year 70 1 we find him at Jerusalem in a synagogue of his own, expounding the new doc- trine, and, after kindling great enthusiasm among a host of disciples who had quicklj' gathered about him, send- ing forth from this centre of Judaism "letters of admo- nition, instruction, and encouragement to distant con- gregations, with zealous preachers who proclaimed ev- erywhere the supreme authority of the Law, and the worthlessness of all that, in the Talmud or any other writings, was contrary to the law of Moses" (comp. Pin- skcr, Likule Kadinonioth, or Ziir Geschichte Ji. Litei: des Kariii.-^mus, Append, p. 33 and 90). Ahnan died in 7(55, yet within that astonishingly brief period the Karaites had spread over Palestine, Egj'pt,Greece, Barbary, Spain, SjTia, Tartary, Byzantium, Fez, IMorocco, and even to the ranges of the Atlas, and by all the Karaites in these distant lands his death was mourned as the loss of a second IMoses. Under Rabbi Salomon bcn-Jerukhim (born in 885) they prospered greatly in the 9th ccnturj% and even up to the 14th they seem to have increased, but thereafter their condition becomes obscure, and light first again breaks upon the Karaites' history with the opening of the present century (see below).
The reason why so little is yet known about the Ka- raites is that their writings are not generally accessible. Towards the close of the 17th century Protestant theo- logians interested themselves in their behalf, and in 1G90 Peringer (then professor of Hebrew at the university at Upsala) was sent to Poland by the king of Sweden to make inquiries into their history. In 1698 Jacob Trig- land (professor at Leyden) went thither for the same purpose, and the results of his investigations, which re- main of great value to this day, were published in the Thesmirus of Sacred Oriental Antiquities. Trigland says that he had learned enough to speak of them with as- surance. He asserts that, soon after the prophets had ceased, the Jews became divided on the subject of works and supererogation, some maintaining their necessity from tradition, whilst others, keeping close to the writ- ten law, set them aside, and that thus Karaism com- menced. He adds that, after the return from the Baby- lonian cajitivity, on the re-cstablishnient of the observ- ance of the laAv there were several practices found prop- er for that end, and these, being once introduced, were looked upon as essential, and as appointed by ]\Ioses. This was the origin of Pharisaism, while a contrary par- ty, who continued to adhere to the letter, foimded Ka- raism. AVolliiis, the great 1 lebrew l)ibliographer, depend- ing on the Mciiioirf: of ]\Iardachai ben-Nissan, a learn- ed Karaite (imblished by AVolf under the title of Xoti- tia Kumorum, Hamburg and Leipzig, 1714, 4to), refers their origin to a massacre among the Jewish doctors imder Alexander Jannanis, their king, about a hundred years before Clirist, because Simon, son of Shetach."and the (pieen's brother, making his eseape into Egypt, there forged his pretended traditions, and, on his return to Je- rusalem, published his visions, interpolating the law af-
ter his own fancy, and supporting his novelties from the notices which God, he said, had communicated by the mouth of Moses, whose depositary he was. He gained many followers, and was opposed by others, who main- tained that all which (iod had revealed to Moses was written. Hence the Jews became divided into two sects, the Karaites and Traditionists. Among the first, Juda, son of Tabbai, distinguished himself; among the latter, HQlel ((j. v.). In later history he agrees with Avhat has been said above. It remains only to be stated that Wolfius reckons not only the Sadducees, but also the Scribes, in the number of Karaites. But such a class- ification is wholly inconsistent with our present knowl- edge of the Sadducees and the Scribes. Karaism cannot be regarded as in any sense a product of Sadduceeism ; the two are the opposites both in principle and tendency, or, as Rule has it, " Sadduceeism and Karaism are just as contrary the one to the other as imbelief and faith."
Doctrines and Usages. — Although the Karaites are decidedly opposed to assigning any authority to tradi- tion, they by no means reject altogether the use of the Talmud, etc. Quite to the contrarj-, they gladly accept any light that they can get in their investigation of the O.-T. Scriptures, but it is only as exegetical aids that they are ready to accept Jewish traditionary writings. Selden, who is very express on this point, observes, ia his Uxor Ilehraica, that besides the mere text, they have also certain interpretations which they call hered- itarj-, and which they consider proper traditions. Their theology seems to differ only from that of the Rabbin- ites in being purer and free frtim superstition, as they give no credit to the explications of tlie Cabalists, chi- merical allegories, nor to any constitutions of the Tal- mud. In short, they accept only what is conformable to Scripture, and may be drawn from it by just and necessary consequences. The Karaites, in distinction from the Kabbinites, have their own Confession of Faith, which consists of ten articles. They are (as translated by Rule, p. 128) as follows:
1. That all this bodily (or material) existence, that is to say, the spheres and all that is iu them, is created.
2. That they liave a Creator, and the Creator has hia own soul (or spirit).
3. That he has no similitude, and he is one, separate from all.
4. That he sent Moses, our master (upon whom he pence !;.
5. That he sent with Moses, our master, his law, which is perfect ;
G. For the instruction of the fiiithful, the language of our law, aud the interpretation, that is to Fay, the reading (or text), and the division (or vowel pointing).
7. That the blessed God sent forth the other prophets.
S. That God (blessed he his name !) will raise the sons of men to life in the day of judgment.
0. That the hlessed God giveih to man according to his w.Tjs, and according to the fruit of his doings.
10. That the hlessed God has not reprobated the men of the captivity, but they aie under the cliastit-ements of God, aud it is every day riirht that they should obtain his salvation by the bauds of Messiah, the Son of David.
A comparison of this confession with the thirteen ar- ticles of the Kabbinites [see Judaism] makes it evident that the Karaitic confession was framed later than that of the Rabl)inites, with intent to put in bold relief the peculiar doctrines of Karaism. Prayer, tasting, and pil- grimages to Hebron (cvidtntly inspired by the Jloham- medan pilgrimage to JMccca) are points of religious prac- tice to which they pay particular attention. They are eminently moralists (revering greatly Leviticus xix and xx), very conscientious in their dealings with their fel- low-men, temperate and .simple in food ar.d dress, al- though far from being ascetics. In distinction from the Rabbinitcs, they make the heads of their jihylacter- ies round instead of square, and their prohibition of marriage among persons of affinity extends to degrees almost of infinit}-. Instead of facing their synagogues towards the east, as (hi the Kabbinites, they face them north and south, arguing that Shalmaneser brought them northward, so that in praying they nuist turn to the south in order to face Jerusalem.
KAREAH
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KARENS
Numher and Present Condi/ion. — The number of the present adherents to Karaism has been variously esti- mated; nothing, however, can be definitely or even ap- proximately given until more shall be known of the Jews of Asia. They are strongest, according to modern accounts, in the Crimea, where there are over 4000 of them ; but, with Rule (p. 112), we believe that there are many Jews, ostensibly adherents of the Rabbinites, who are truly believers in Karaism ; certainly the lieformed schools of Judaism are nothing else than Rationalistic Karaites.
Under the Russian and Austrian governments the Karaites enjoy greater privileges than the Rabbinites; in mauj' respects they are on an equality with the adhe- rents to the state religion of these respective countries. Fortunately for the Rabbinites, however, it is not any want of morality in them, but the excesses of the Chas- idim (q. v.) who belong to their number, that has de- prived them of the favors which are so freely bestowed on the Karaites. Strangely enough, the Karaites con- tend that the Messiah will issue from their tribe, and that their princes were once the sovereigns of Egypt.
Literature. — The Karaites have, ever since the days of Ahnan, produced writers of great excellence and dis- tinction. Unfortunately, we have thus far succeeded in wresting from oblivion, comparatively speaking, only a few works, but these evince that Karaism has not failed to be active in urging its adherents to literary activity. They have produced an extensive special Hebrew liter- ature of their own, chiefly consisting of works on the- ology, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, etc. The greatest number of these are deposited in the Imperial Library at St. Petersburg. So long as they lived prin- cipally under jMohammedan rule they wrote in Arabic, but when they unfolded a literary activity in the Cri- mea and among the Tartars they originated a language peculiar to themselves — a mixture of Tartar and Turk- ish. Some of their principal later authors are little known to us, e. g. Joseph b.-Noah, .Jeshua, Jehudah Ha- dassi, Aron b.-Joseph, Aron b.-Eliah, the celebrated op- ponent of Moses Maimonides ; Eliah Beshitzi, Kaleb, IMoses Beshizi, IMardochai b.-Nissan, Salomo b.-Abram Traki, Simcha b.-Isaac b.-lMoses, etc.
Se? Furst, Gesch. d. Karderthitms (Leipz. 18G9, 5 vols. 8vo) ; Beer, Gesch. d. jiidisch. Sekten, vol. i (Leipz. 1822, 8vo); Jost, Gesch. d.Jndentfiitm.9, xo\. ii (see Index in vol. ill); Gviitz, Gesch. ,d. Juden, u, i07 sq., and later volumes; and the compendium of Rule, History of the Karaite Jews (Lond. 1870, 8vo). (J. il. W.)
Kare'ah (linh.Kare'ach, HTp, hald; Sept. Kap?;£ v. r. Kapis or Knp£« ; in 2 Kings xxv, 23, Kapii v. r. KcfpZ/S', Auth.Yers. "Careah"), the father of Johanan and .Jonathan, who attached themselves for a time to the loyal party under Gedaliah, the Babylonian gover- niir of Jerusalem (Jer. xl, 8, 13, 15, IG; xli, 11, 13. 14, IG ; xlii, 1,8; xliii, 2, 4, 5). B.C. ante 588.
Karelia (also Carena, Quarena, Carentana) is the name of an ecclesiastical fast formerly observed in the Roman Catholic Church, forty days in length, and was generally imposed by bishops or monastic authorities for various venial sins. The Karenist was confined to bread and water, and deprived of all other temporal conven- iences and enjoyments, as well as all association with the world. See Aschbach, Kirchcn-Le.r. iii, C89.
Karens, the name of a people of India, occupying various portions of Burmah between 28^ and 10° N. lati- tude, and 99° and 93° E. longitude. The name Karen is of Burmese origin, and designates a class of the IMon- golian family of tribes who call themselves Pgah Ken- zau, a term meaning man. They first became known to Europeans in A.D. 1824-7. They appear to be iden- tical with the Kak/u/en.11, which Kincaid thinks to be only another name for Karen. He says that all these tribes, through the whole extent of the Shan country, and farther north, are called Kakhyens. They are found from the JIartabau (iulf inward as i'ar as the Burman
population has ever extended. They are numerous about Rangoon and Ava, and are known to extend at least two hundred and fifty miles east of Ava. These tribes are supposed to number about five millions.
Or if/in. — There is much doubt as to their origin. There are amongst them many distinct traditions which would point to a Thibetan source. Slason (in his Tcn- nasserini) says that they regard themselves as wander- ers from the north, and as having crossed " a river of running sand," by which name he says Fa Hian, the Chinese pilgrim who visited India about the 5th cen- tury, constantly speaks of the great desert to the north of Burmah, and between China and Thibet. Bruce says that they are of Turanian stock, and allied with the Ta- mulians of India an<l the inhabitants of Thibet (p. 145, 147). A portion of northern Burmah and Yunnan has been suggested as the probable original seat of the Ka- ren race. Many authorities consider them as the abo- rigines of much of Burmah. Amongst the reasons as- signed for this view are ,the following: (1) They re- ceived from the Burmese their name of Karen, Mhich means Jirrt or aboriginal. (2) Their habits are much more primitive than those of the Burmese, and they dir.- like their subjugation to the latter. (3) They have tra- ditions distinctly fixing their early location on the east- ern side of a body of water which they call Kuiv or KIto, which is so ancient a term that they have lost the mean- ing of it altogether, but the tradition itself shows that this was the Bay of Bengal. (4) The Jloans or Ta- laings, a people Mho are older residents than the Bur- mese in Farther India, sa}^ the Karens were in the coun- try when thej^ first entered it, and were known as Be- loos or wild men by their forefathers (Journ. American Oriental Society, vol. iv).
Description. — Tlie Karens of the north are more ad- vanced in the arts and in the habits of civilization than those of the southern district. They reckon themselves not by villages nor by cities, but by families, having a patriarchal form of society, single families, occupants of one house, often numbering from three to four hundred members. Their liouses are immense structures, made of posts, with joists at a height of seven or eight feet from the groimd, the sides being lined with mats, the roof being of palm-leaves, and the partitions of bamboo matting.
It is the southern section of these tribes, however, which is best known, especially those designated as Sgau and Pgho Karens. The latter are called by the Burmese Talainy Karens, and are a vigorous people, ro- bust, full-chested, with large limbs, square cheek-bones, thick and fiattened nose, but not specially jiromincnt lips. The Sgau, or pure Karens, are smaller, v.ith a com- plexion lighter than others surrounding them, and with a general languor about their movements. Mr. Judson in 1833 wrote of them as " a meek, peacefid race, sim- ple and credulous, with many of the softer virtues and few flagrant vices, greatly addicted to drunkenness, ex- tremely filthy, indolent in their habits, their morals in other respects being superior to many more civilized races, though he was told that they were as untamable as the wild cow of the mountains" (Waj-land, J«f/soH, i, 542 sq.).
Reliyious Tradition.^. — They have amongst them a great number of religious traditions which bear a mark- ed analogy to Biblical history. The tradition respect- ing the creation specifies that man was created from the earth, and woman from one of man's ribs. The Creator said, " I lose these, my son and daughter. I will bestow my life upon them," and he then breathed a particle of his life into their nostrils, "and they came to life and were men." God made food and drink ; rice, fire, and water; cattle, elephants, and birds. Traditions concern- ing man's primitive state and first transgression, verj' similar to the Bible narrative, are also preserved amongst them. Nank'plav, who answers to the serpent of Gen- esis, is variously impersonated as sometimes male and sometimes female : man is located in a garden, with sev-
KARENS
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KARENS
en different kinils of fruits of which he should cat. with one exception. Nauk'jdau meets liim and tells him tlie character of all the fruits, and assures him that the for- bidden one is the most delicious of all. He prevails on the woman lirst to taste this fruit. She gives it to her husband, etc. On the morrow Ywah (on this name, see below, imder Reliyious Views) comes, etc. The very de- tail of the narrative is preserved to a marvellous de- gree.
Otlier traditions point to a flood, in which the waters "rose and rose till they reached to heaven." Others refer to an early separation of the human family. " JMen had at first one father and mother; but, because they did not love each other, thej^ separated, after which they did not know each other's language, and became enemies and fought." Still another says that when they were scattered, a younger brother, or the " White Westerner," came, begging the Karens to return to the place where they left God ; which tradition is said to have had much to clo with the early success of the missionaries amongst these people, as the Karens applied these traditions to them.
Relifjious Views. — They have remarkably clear views of God, whom they believe to be " immutable, eternal ; that he was from the beginning of the world. The life of God is endless ; generations cannot measure his existence. God is complete and good, and through end- less generations will never die. God is omnipotent, but we have not believed him. God created man anciently. He has a knowledge of all tilings to the present time. He created spirit and lii'e." This God is known as Ywah, '• which approaches the word Jehovah as nearly as possible in the Karen language." He was not, how- ever, worshipped when the missionaries first went to the Karens. A great power for evil (Satan) since the fall has rendered relief to man by introducing charms against sickness, death, and other misfortunes, and this person- age, though without image, is widely worshipped. Thus originated their dajmon worship. They appear to be- lieve in the immortality of the soul, though it is doubt- ful if this obtains universally amongst them. Mr. Cross doubts if they have any proper idea of the resurrection of the dead. Transmigration is not accepted amongst them, and many think the soul "flics off in the air." They are thus distinguished from the Buddhists, though long resident with them in Burmah.
Spirit ]Vo)-shij). — Besides the Ywah and the docmons above alluded to, they believe in many other spiritual beings known as Kelah, or, speaking m.jre definitely, every object has a kelah, whether men, trees, or plants, and even inanimate objects, such as axes and knives. The grain growing has its kelah. and when it does not flourish it is because the kelah is leaving it, and it must be called back by invocation. The human kelah is not the soul, nor is the responsibility of human actions lodged in it, nor any moral character attached to it. AU this is attributed to the Thah. The kelah is the author of dreams ; it is that nature which pertains to life, the sen- tient soul, the animal spirits. It can leave the body at will. When it is absent disease ensues ; when yet lon- ger away, death results. Kelah seems to signify life, or existence in the abstract, or of the individual. It is more apt to forsake feeble persons and children. The ' kelah of one person may accompany that of another in going away, hence children are kept away from a coqise, and the house where a person dies is abandoned. Great efforts are made to induce a departed kelah to return. Tempting food is placed on the public wa.yside or in the forest, and various ceremonies and rituals arc gone through, which sometimes are thought to be successful in securing tlie return of the kelah. One might almost Avonder that its return should Ije cousidered desirable ■when we are further told that the kelah has seven sep- arate existences in one, which endeavor to superinduce madness, recklessness, shamelessness, drinking propensi- ties, anger, cruelty, violence, murder, and are constantly bent on evil. But along with the kelah we learn of
Tso, which maan?, power, and seems to be a personifica- tion oVreuson, If the tso becomes heedless or weak, or is unfortunately circimistanced, then the kelah can do mischief, but otherwise it is powerless for evil.
There are other spiritual beings, such as Keplwo, a species of vampire, which is the stomach of a wizard, and in the form of the head and entrails of a human be- ing goes out at night to seek food. It destroys human kelahs. Therels are spirits of those who have died by violence, as by tigers or other wild beasts, by famine, or sword, or starvation. These can neither go to the up- per region (Mukhah), nor to that of the Flu, where men are punished, but must remain on earth, causing mortal sickness. Offerings and supplications are made to them. Tahmus or Tah-his are spectres of those Avho have been dreadfully wicked in this life. They appear as appari- tions only, in form of horses, elephants, (togs, crocodiles, serpents, vultures, ducks, or colossal men. /Sek/niJis are spirits of persons left unburied, and of infants or aged persons who have become infirm because the tso has left them. Plup)ho are inhabitants of the infernal re- gion, and are spirits of all who go natinally to their proper place, and renew their earthly em]iloyments, building houses, cutting rice, etc. The location is un- declared, but is above the earth, or below it, or beyond the horizon. It is presided over by king Cootay or Thee- do. At his call the kelahs must go, and men die. Un- der his dominion they serve, as in an intermediate state, a probation, and if good go to heaven, if bad to hell or Lerah, which has two gradations of piniishment, one be- ing more severe than the other. Tuh-nahs or Xaks are the spirits of two sorts of fiends which take the form of any animals they please, and prey upon men. The Lord of men created them as a punishment in conse- quence of a disobedience on the part of men to one of his commands. They have a king who was the great tempter of man in the garden. Mukhahs are the an- cestors of the Karons who inhabit the upper region, and are the creators of the present generation. Sometimes they work imperfectly, and, as a consequence, ill-favored and imperfect persons are found. Tliey preside over births and marriages, mingling together the blood of two persons. Thej- are -worshipped with offerings. The Keleepho create the winds; the Tah Yoornu cause eclips- es ; the Coocla and Liatpihoo preside over the wet and dry seasons.
Priesthood. — There are amongst the Karens a class of people who serve as prophets, and assume conditions of mind and body much like those affected by the '• medi- cine-men" amongst North American Indians. What with writhing of the body, rolling on the ground, foam- ing at the mouth, etc., they are presumed to attain a state of clairvoyance favorable to the prediction of comuig events. The prophecies uttered by these which are re- tained in tradition mostly pertain to the deliverance of the Karens from the oppression of the Burmese. These prophets are of two classes. The wees compose ballads and other poetry, and have great power in caUing back dejjarted kelahs. The other class are known as booL- Iios, and are rather priests than prophets, taking the lead in the religious ceremonies of the people, instructing them in their religious obligations, and are a more re- spectable class, being heads of commmiities, though not hereditary chiefs.
Jlissiniis. — iMissionary work was commenced amongst these tribes about 1828, by Messrs. Boardman and JuH- son, who were succeeded bj' Blessrs. Wade, Blason, and Kiucaid. Twenty-five years after that the Karen apostle Ko-thau-Bu, a native convert, met with wonderfLd suc- cess amongst these people. Associated prominently with this great movement was Rev. Mr. Vinton, who '-in six years planted forty churches, opened forty-two houses of worship and thirty-two school-houses, and saw be- tween eight and nine thousand Karens raised to the lev- el of Christian worshijipers. In 1852 alone he received five hundred Karens into the Church. In 1808 the Bap- tist jMission report showed that they had amongst this
KARE-PATREPAXDAROInT
21
people sixty-six native ordained pastors and evangel- ists; three hundred and forty-six native preachers un- ordained; three hunth-ed and sLxty native chiu-ches ; nineteen thousand two liundred and thirty-one church- members, and nearly sixty thousand natives" of all ages known as Christians. A writer in the Madras Obsei-v- er (India) stated that, in Oct, 18G8, a gentleman, not in sympathy with the Baptists, but a great traveller, per- forming "his journeys on foot through Burmah while amongst these Karen districts, said that on one occasion " he found himself for seventeen successive nights, at the end of his days' journeys through the forest, in a na- tive Christian village.
Literature. — Jonriial of the American Oriental Socie- ty, vol. iv; Wayland, Z,j/e of Judson ; Brace, Races of the Old World; Whitney, Lanr/uarje and the Studi/ of Lawjuarje ; Latham, Elements of Comparative Philolocji/ ; Anderson, Foreign Missions (N. Y. 18G9) ; Mullen, 7'en Years of Missionary Work in India ; Mrs. Mason, Ciril- izinij Mountain Men, or Sketches of Mission Work among the Karens (18G2) ; Mrs. Wylie, Gospel in Burmah. For a full history of the mission work amongst the Karens, see Mason, Gospel in Burmah ; Report of A merican Bap- tist Mission Union for 1808. A comparative vocabulary of the Sgau and Pwo dialects of the Karen language, by the liev. Dr. Nathan Brown, Baptist missionarj-, now of New York City, may be found in the Jou7: of the Amer- ican Oriental Societi/, vol. iv. See also the article Bur- mah (II. Missions). (J. T. G.)
Kare-Patrepandaron, the name of a class of Hindu ascetics, beggars of the Brahminic order, who have vo\\-ed eternal silence. Wholly naked, with only a sacred string, generally a snake's skin, over their shoulders, they make their home under large shade-trees. When they enter a house they manifest their presence by the clapping of their hands, and generally share with the inmates the best of their dainties, for a Brahmin consid- ers himself highly honored by such a visit, — ^Vollmer, WOrterb. d. Mythol. p. 1020.
Karg, Georg (the "Parsimonious"), a German theo- logian, was born at Heroldingen in 1512. In 1538 he was ordained for the ministry by iMelancthon, and became pastor first at Oettingen, later at Schwabach ; and finally, in 1553, settled at Anspach, and became general superin- tendent of the churches of the duchy of Baireuth. He died in 157G. Karg acquired great notoriety during the difficulties concerning the Formula Concordice by main- taining that it was only by passive obedience that Christ made atonement for us : for active obeilience (obedien- tia activa) he was bound to give as man ; the law binds us either to obedience or to iinnishment, but not to both together. Christ, while suffering the punishment for us, rendered obedience on his own account. What he has paid remains no longer for us to pay (i. e. the pun- ishment) ; obedience, however, w.e are bound to render, as he rendered his, in order to be a pure and perfect of- fering unto God. See Imputation. He defended these opinions in 1563, but, as they provoked a great contro- versy, he finally retracted them in 1570. The same opinions were afterwards maintained by John Piscator, professor at Herborn, and by John Camero of Saumiu-. See ^Valch, Streitigkeiten innerh. d. luth. Kirche, xiv, 360 ; Schrockh, Kirchengesch. seit d. Reformation, v, 358 ; Bol- linger, D. Reformation, iii, 564 ; Schweizer, Centraldog- men, ii, 16, 17 ; Herzog, Real-Encyklop. vii, 379.
Karigites, or Separatists, is the name of a IMo- hammedan sect who oppose all government, both eccle- siastical and spiritual. They holil that tlie person who is to preside in spiritual affairs sliould be a man of su- pernatural birth and altogether of a spiritual character. See INIoiiAMJiEDANS; comp. I-Lvumatiiians.
Karim. See Carem.
Kar'kaa, or, rather, Kar'ka (Hebrew Karka', ")5"i|?, a floor, as in Numb, v, 17, etc.; with art. and il directive in pause, i^"P'^|5'^, hak-Karka'd; Sept, 'Ak-
KARMATHIANS
Kapica V. r. rijv Kara Sixrudg Kdorjc ; Vulg. Carcaa v, r. Caj-iatha), a jilace situated at a bend in the southern boundary of Judali (i. e. Simeon or Palestine), between Adar and Azmon (Josh, xv, 3) ; probably about mid- way between the Dead Sea and the IMecUterranean, jjer- haps near the well marked as Bir Abu-Atreibe on Zim- mermann's map. See Tribe.
Karkaphensian Version. See Syriac Ver- sions.
Karkom. See Saffron.
Kar'kor (Heb. Karkor', "^p^^, foundation ; Sept. KapKc'ip V. r. Knpicd,\u\g. requiescehant), a place be- yond Jordan whither the iMidianitish princes Zeba and Zalmunna had retired with their remaining army after the first rout by Gideon, who pursued and routed them again in its vicinity (Judg. viii, 10). From the context it appears to have been situated not far beyond Succoth and Penuel, towards the south, in a naturally secure spot east of Nobah and Jogbehah; indications that point to a locality among the southern openings of Jebel Zurka, north-east of Rabbath Ammon. Schwarz supposes {Pa- lest, p. 223) that el-Keruh is meant, a place a few miles south-east of Draa or Edrei, in the Haiuran ; but this is too far distant north-easterly. Eusebius's comparison of the castle {(ppovpiov) Carcaria (KapKapia, Onomast.), one day's joiurnej^ distant from Petra, is equally foreign ; and this may be the modern Kerak of Moab. See Ke-
NATII.
Karl-Borromseus Union, a Eoman Catholic as- sociation in Khenish Prussia, formed for the purpose of effecting in Roman Catholic society the same results for which the Gustavus Adolphus Society of the Protestant Church was founded. Perhaps, in a measure, it was in- tended to oppose any inroads of the Protestant associa- tion among the Roman Catholics. It originated in 1841. and makes it its special object to circidate at large the literary productions of Roman Catholics. The society publishes a monthly journal, and occasionally works of a religious character ^vritten in popular form. See Ka- tholische Real-Encgklojmdie, xi, 835.
Karlowitz, Ciiristopii von. See Maurice of
S.VXONY.
Karlstadt, Andreas Rudolph Bodensteih.
See Carlstaut.
Karlstadt, Johannes. See Draconites.
Karmathians (so called from Abu Said Al-Jena- bi, surnamed .1 l-Karmatha) is the name of a Jloham- medan sect which originated in the 9th century, under the caliphate of Al-jMotammed. Strictly speaking, the Karmathians were Shiites (q. v. ; see also Ismail), for Karmatha, their founder, was one of the missionaries in the province of Kufa, appointed by one of the apostles ( Hussein Ahwagi) of Ahmed, the successor of Abdallah Ibn-^Iaimun. who flourished about the middle of the 2d centur}'-, and who first gave character to the Ismaillte schism. It was he likewise who projected and prejiared the way for a union of the Arabic conquerors, and the many races that had been subjected since Mohammed's death, and the enthronement of what later was -called " Pure Reason" as the sole deity for worship. With an extraordinary knowledge of the human heart and hu- man weakness, he foimd a way to attract the high and tlie low. To the believer he offered devotion ; liberty, if not license, to the "free in spirit:" philosophy to the "strong-minded;" mystical hopes to the fanatics: mira- cles to the masses. To the Jews he offered a JNIessiah, to the Christians a Paraclete, to the JNIoslems a Mahdi, and to the Persi.an and Syrian "pagans" a philoscjphi- cal theologv. The results of his exertions, so pr;\ctical in tendency, were tridy wonderful, and at one tii.ie it seemed as if jMohammedanism was doomed. He was soon persecuted by the authorities, and, driven frojn place to pliice, he finally died in Selamia, in Syria, leav- mg the -work he had so successfully begun to his sun
KARMATHIANS
22
KARMATHIANS
Ahmed. This Ahmed, profit uip hy the experience of his father, carried on tlie work of conversion somewhat secretly ; at least he did not dare to assume publicly the claims of an imam, as his father had done. He sent missionaries, however, to different jiarts of the country to gain adherents for this extreme nationalistic move- ment, and one of the converts made was our Karmatha, who gave ne^v life to this inidertaking. He (juickly gathered about him a large number of converts, and, successful in securing their confidence, he soon made tliem the blind instruments of his will. He advocated, according to some authorities, absolute communism, not only of property, but even of wives, and fomided one particular colony, consisting of chosen converts, around his own house at Kufa. (See below. Religious Belief.)
From this place, called the "House of Refuge," there- after the whole religious movement of the Karmathians was conducted. jNIissionaries were created and sent to different parts of the earth to convert the nations, and gather them into the fold of Karmathianism. Among these converts was one Abu Said, whose success in Southern Persia, and afterwards at Bahrein, in the Per- sian Gulf, deserves special notice here. The inhabitants of this country, formerly a province of Persia, adhering partly to the Jewish, partly to the Persian faith, had been subjected by Mohammed, but had been allowed to retain their o^vn creed. After the prophet's death they had at once shaken off the unwelcome yoke, Avhich, however, had again been put upon them by Omar. In the interior of this country lived certain Arabs, highly disaffected against Islam, the innumerable precepts of which they intensely disliked, and among these Abu Said made the most marvellous strides in his con- versions, until he finally gained the confidence of the Bahreinites generally, and in less than two years he brought over a great part of the people of Bahrein. To suppress this proselytism, an army of 10,000 men was dispatche'd in 282 (Hegira) against liim and his fol- lowers, but the Karmathians were victorious, and Abu Said now became inidisputcd possessor of the whole country, destroyed the old capital Hajar, and made Lahsa (his own residence) the cayjital of the country. In other parts of the Saracenic possessions the Karma- thians also warred for a time successfully against the caliphate of Bagdad, and threatened its very existence, until, in a batlle fought in the 29ith year of the Hegi- ra, the caliph's general, Wasif, won a decisive victory, and greatly crippled the military strength of the Kar- matliians. Both Karmatha (of whose personal historj' after this time we lack all information) and Abu Said became — by what means is matter of great obscurity — faithless to their own creed ; but they continued to have followers, and when Abu Said was killed, together with some of his principal officers, in the bath in his own castle at Lahsa. in 301 of the Hegira, by one of his eunuchs, his son, Abu Tahir, liecame his successor, and the struggle was continued. In 311 he seized the town of Basra. In the next year he pillaged the caravan which went to JNIecca, and ransacked KuHi. In 315 he once more appeared in Kufa and in Irak, and gained so decided a victory over the caliph's troops that Bagdad began to tremble before him. In 317 (A.D. 930) the great and decisive blow against the caliphate, or, rather, against JMohammedanism itself, was struck. '■ When the great caravan of pilgrims for the annual pilgrimage had arrived at jNIccca, the news suddenly sjiread that Abu Tahir, the terror of Islam, had appeared at tlie head of an army in the holy city itself. All attempts to buy him oil" failed, and a ma.ssacre of the most fearful de- scription ensued. AVith barbarous irony, he asked the victims what had become of flie sacred [irotection of the place. Every one. they had ahvays been told, Avas safe and inviolable at !Mecca. Why was he allowed thus ea- sily to kill them — the race of donkeys? Accordrng to some, for six days; to others, for eleven or seventeen, the massacre lasted. The numbers killed within the pre- cincts of the temple itself are variously given. The
holy places were desecrated, almost irredeemably. But, not satisfied with this, Abu Tahir laid hands on the su- preme palladium, tlie black stone itself. Yet he was apparently mistaken in his calcidations. So far from turning the hearts of the faithful from a worship which God did not seem to have defended, the remaining Mos- lems clung all the more fervently to it. God's decree had certainly permitted all these indignities to be put upon his house, but it was not f(jr them to murmur. The stone gone, they covered the place where it had lain with their kisses." Whenever Abu Tahir did not prevent them by force, the caravans went on their usual annual pilgrimage, and Abu Tahir was finally persuade<i to conclude a treaty permitting the pilgrimage on pay- ment of five denars fur every camel, and seven for everj-- horse. But the black stone, notwithstanding all the efforts on the part of the court of Bagdad, he never re- turned. (See below.) Abu Tahir liimself was a man of great daring, and so infatuated were his men with the personal bravery and divine calling of their leader that they blindly obeyed any demands he made upon them.
Abu Tahir died in 332 of the Hegira, master of Arabia, Syria, and Irak. It was not until seven years later (A.D. 950), inukr the reign of two of his brothers who had succeeded him, that the " black stone" -was re- turned to IMecca for an enormous ransom, and fixed there, in the seventh piUar of the moscpie called Rahmat (God's mercy). But with the death of Abu Tahir the star of the Karmathians began to wane. Little is heard of them of any import till 375, when they were defeated before Kufti — an event which seems to have put an end to their dominion in Irak and Syria. In 378 they were further defeated in battle by Asfar, and their chief kill- ed. They retreated to Lahsa, where they fortified them- selves; whereupon Asfiir marched to Elkatif, took it, and carried away all the baggage, slaves, and animals of the Karmathians of that town, and retired to Basra. This seems to have finally ruined the already -(vcak band of that once formidable power, and nothing fur- ther is heard of them in history, although they retained Lahsa down to 430, and even later. To our own day there still exists, according to Palgrave, some disaffect- ed remnants of them at Hasa (the modern name of their ancient centre and stronghold), and other tracts of the peninsula; and their antagonism against IMohammed- anism, which they have utterly abrogated among them- selves, so far from Ijeing aliated, bids fair to break out anew into open rebellion at the first opportunity. In- deed, some of the most trustworthy writers on Eastern historj' assert that the modern Druses owe the origin of their religious belief to the Karmatliiaiis (comp. Mad- den, Turkish Empire, ii, 210).
The religious heVuf of the Karmathians, so far as it has been preserved to us, seems in the beginning — be- fore Ismailism became a mixture of "naturalism" and "materialism" of whilom Sabaism, and of Indian incar- nations and transmigrations of later days — to have only been a kind of "reformed" Islam. Their master Kar- matha, this sect maintained, had evinced himself to be a true prophet, and had brought a new law into the world. By this many of the IMohammedan tenets were altered, many ancient ceremonies and forms of prayer were changed, and an entirely new kind of fast intro- duced. Wine was permitted, as well as a few other things which the Koran prohibited, while many of the precejits found in that book were made mere allegories. L'rayer was but the symbol of obedience to their imam, and fasting the symbol of silence, or, rather, of conceal- ment of the religious doctrine from the stranger. Thej' also believed fornication to be the sin of infidelity, and the guilt thereof to be incurred by those who revealed the mysteries of their religion, or failed to pay a blind obedience to their chief, or to contribute the fifth part of their jiroperty as an offering to the imam (compare Sale. Prclimliiari/ Discourse fo tlte Koran').
For further details, see Weil, GescJdchte d. Chalijen;
KARX
23
KARO
idem, Geschichte der islam'Uischen Volker (Stuttg. 18Cfi, 8vo),p. 197 sq. ; De (Joeje, il/e^woiz-e sur Its Cannathi's, etc. ; Silvestre de Sacy, litlif/ion des Druses ; Sale, Ko- ran; Taj'lor, Hist. Mohammedanism, p. 223 sq. ; Madden, Turkish Jimpire, ii, IGi sq. ; Chambers, Cyclopcedia, x, 58G sq. See Siiiites.
Karn, Aakox Jakob, a Lutheran minister, was born in Loudon Co., Virginia, August, 1820. In his youth lie dedicated himself to the service of the Lord, and, with a view to enter the Christian ministry, became a stu- dent ill tlie institution at Gettysburg in the autumn of 1837, and was gTaduated from Pennsylvania College in 18-12, and from the theological seminary in 1811. After his license to preach he accepted a caU to the Lu- theran Church at Pine Grove, Pa. ; thence he removed to Canton, Ohio. In 1848 he took charge of the En- glish Lutheran Church in Savannah, Georgia. Here he labored, enjoying the confidence of his people and the re- spect of the whole community, till his physical strength gave vvay, and advancing disease compelled him to sus- pentl the exercise of his office. His congregation sug- gested a trip to foreign lands. They provided the ex- penses for the journey, and supplies for the pulpit during his absence. He travelled through France, Ital}', Ger- many, and Switzerland, but his impaired health derived no advantage from the tour, and he returned to his na- tive country only to close liis life surrounded l)y the tender sympathies of loved ones at home. He died at Chicago, lU., Dec. 19, 18t)0. Karn was an able preacher and an excellent man. His ministry was fruitfid in good results. During the prevalence of flie yeUow fever in Savannah in 1854 and 1858, he continued at his post, exhausting his time and his strength in ministering to the suffering and the dying, not only of his own con- gregation, but to others wlio were not in connection with any Church, amid scenes the most distressing and heart-rending, in his offices of kindness to the sick and in the burial of the dead. It is supposed his physical constitution sustained an injury from the influences of the epidemic from whicli he never recovered. (M. L. S.)
Karnaim. See Asiitarotii-karnaim.
Karuko"Wski, Stanislaus, a celebrated Roman Catholic jirelate, was born in Bland in 1526. Of Ids early life nothing is known to us. In 15G3 he was made bisliiip of Wladislaw, and became coadjutor to the arch- bishop of Gnesen in 1577, and in 1581 sole occupant of the archbishopric and primate of Poland. In the civil history of Poland Karnkowski played jio imimportant part. King Stephen (Betori) was crowned b}' him (Hay 1, 157G), and on the death of the king Karnkowski him- self assumed the reins of government until a ro3'al suc- cessor was found in the person of the Swedish crown- prince Sigismund, whom he also crowned. It is gener- ally supposed that Karnkowski belonged to the .Jesuit- ical order. In Kalisch he built a college for the .Jesuits : he also founded two schools for the theological training of Roman Catholics. Under his protection tlie cele- brated .Jesuit .Jacob Wujek translated the Bilile into Po- lish, a work which to tliis day remains the only authen- tic edition in the Polish (Roman Catholic) Church. Karnkowski died May 2G, 1G03. He published Consti- tutiones synodales dioceses cum caiechesi : — Sermones ad parochos: — De ecclesia utraqiie ; etc. See Wetzer und Welte, Kircheii-Lexikon, xii, 632.
Karo, Joseph bex-Ephraim, ^ Jewish Rabbi, one of the most celebrated characters in Rabbinic literature, was born in Sjiain in 1488, of a family of note. Amid the great persecutions which the Spanish Jews suffered in the early part of the IGth century, the Karo family were exiled, anil settled finally at Nicopolis, in Euro- pean Turkey. His early Talmudical education .Joseph received under tlie instruction of liis own father, and the youth quickly evinced, in the ready acquisition of Talmudic lore, a particular liking for tradition. The Mishua text, it is said, he had learned by heart, and be- fore he had reached the age of twenty-five he was ac-
cepted as a Talmudical authority. From Nicopolis .Jo- seph removed successively to Adrianoiile and Salonica. WhUe a resident of these places (about 1522-35) he be- came acquainted with the great cabalistic fanatic Sa- lomo Moleb(j of Pcjrtagal. and he was finally induced to remove to Safet (q. v.), in Palestine, the great cabalis- tic centre in the East in the IGth century. In Safet he studied much with the Rabbinical authorities of Pales- tine, and during the controversy on the Jewish gaonate [see Jacob Berab] Joseph Karo was one of the four disciples whom Jacob Berab ordained when forced by Levi ben-Chabib to quit the country. See Ordination, Jewish. Previously infatuated with the Cabalists' Mes- sianic notions, and now (Jacob Berab died Januar\', 1541, shortly after quitting Palestine) one of the four Rabbis ordained by the only authority competent to perform the sacred rite, he became satisfied that he was divinely chosen for some important mission, perhaps even the Messiahship itself. (He believed, says Griitz [see below], that he would die and be again raised up to become the leader of his nation.) Ever since 1522 he had been engaged in writing an extensive religious and ritual codex, entitled ~&i^ IT'Sl (Beth Yosepth, first published at Sablonets, 1553, 4 vols, folio), a revision, correction, and enlargement of a like work by Jacob ben- Asher ; he now hastened the completion of this gigantic undertaking in the hope that its publication would lead his people to assign him at once the jilace to which he believed himself divinely called. He completed the work in 1542, but- it gauied for him only the recognition of being one of the ablest rabbis of Safet. Unremit- tingly he continued his labors, determined to bring about the result which he believed to be his mission — the union of Israel — and with it hasten the days of the Messiah. In the IGth century the Talmud was exten- sively studied among the Jews. Every important con- gregation sustained not onh' a rabbi, but a college. Thus many lucrative positions were open to men inclined to study, and there resulted a general interest in the study of the Talmud. But many students imply many interpreters, and thus it came that, after a time, each congregation, and sometimes even each member of a college, had their own interjiretation of the Talmudical precepts, and Jewish orthodoxy Avas at a loss how to judge rightly. Joseph, comprehending the danger of a general division and a loose interjiretation, determined to meet the case by a compilation of rabbinical law and usage, i. o. by the publication of the interpretations which the Talmud had received at the hands of the most distinguished teachers in Israel. At first he sim- ply subjected his former work to a general supervision, wlaich he completed after twelve years of haril labor. Finding, however, that this did not quite accomplish the desired result, he set about writing a new work, and af- ter nine years of intense application presented his peo- ple with a compendium of rabbinical law and usage, en- titled Tl^^" 'I'^V'^ {ShuJchan .4r((^-, first published at Venice, 1565), which to this day remains a rabbinical authority. His name now became celebrated in all lands Avhere Jews made tlieir abode, and at Safet itself (which really meant all I'alestine) he was cheerfidly ac- corded the place of first authority, as a worthy successor of Jacob Berab. See, however, the article INIoses de Trani. He died in 1575. One result Karo's labors had at least effected — the harmony of all Israelites in expounding the law through the Talmud — tlie estab- Ushment of Rabbinic Judaism — after all. a very dittcrent religion from that revealed through IMoses at Jlount Sinai, foretold hy tlie prophets, and taught by IMoses IMaimonides. For a long time the Shulchan Aruk was the text-book in all the Je^vish schools, the accepted interpretation among aU that people, and many are the editions that have been published of it, legions the schol- ars who hnve commented upon it. Karo's other work of note which deserves mention liere is Chisiph Mi.'^hne, a commcntarv on 3Iaimonidcs's Jad Uavhazaka, which
KARPAS
24
KATYAYANA
h?is frequently been published with the latter work. See Griitz, Geschichie ihr Judeii, ix, 319 sq. ; Zunz, Zur Geschichte u.L{teratU7-, p. 230 sq. ; Jost, Gesck. d.Jtiden- ■ tkums, iii. 129 ; Flirst, Biblioth. Jud. ii, 172 sq. (i. II. W.)
Karpas. See Greks ; Cotton.
Kar'tah (lleb. A'aW«/j', nn"i|3, city; Sept. K«p- ^av V. r. Kuap:), a town in the tribe of Zebulon, as- signed, with its suburbs, as one of tlie places of residence for the Levites of the family of Merari (Josh, xxi, 34). It is there mentioned between Jokncam and Dimnah, the fourth city named being Nahalal; but the parallel passage (1 Chron. vi, 77) gives but two cities, and these different, namely, Kimmon and Tabor, the first of these being probably a preferable reading for Dimnah, and the latter a collective for two others, Jokneam being in the same connection (ver. 08) separately attributed to the Kohathites along with other places on Mt. Ephra- im, near which it lay. Kartah is doubtless identical with the Kattath elsewhere spoken of in the same as- sociation (Josh, xix, 15). Van de Yelde suggests (J/e- 7)ioif, p. 327) that it is "possibly the same with el- Ilarte, a village with traces of antiquity on the banks of the Kishon," not very far from its junction with wady Melek ; the ruins being on the teU Hiirteyeh, on the op- posite side of the river (^Narrative, i, 289).
Kar'tan (Heb. A'ar^a?j', "ri"i|^, double city, an old dual from »^"^p; Sept. KapBch' v. r. Qif.ii.Lwv and Nof/(- /xwf), a town of Naphtali, assigned to the Gcrshonite Levites, and appointed to be one of the cities of refuge (Josh, xxi, 32). In the parallel passage (1 Chron. vi, 76) it is called by the equivalent name of Kirjathai ji. The associated names suggest the probability of some locality near the north-western shore of the Sea of Ti- berias, perhaps the ruined village marked as el-Katanah on Van de Velde's map, on wady Furam, about midway between Lake Tiberias and the Ilulch.
Kartikeya is the name of the Hindu Mars, or god of war, who is represented Ijy the Pnranic legends as having sprung from Siva after a most miraculous fashion. The germ of Kartikeya having fallen into the Ganges, it was on the banks of this river, in a meadow of Sara grass, that the offspring of Siva arose ; and as it happened that he was seen by six nymphs, the Krittikfis (or Pleiades), the chUd assumed six faces, to receive nurture from each. Grown up, he fulfilled his mission in killing Taraka, the dnemon-king, whose pow- er, acquired by penances and austerities, threatened the very existence of the gods. He accomplished, besides, other heroic deeds in his battles with the giants, and became the commander-in-chief of the divine armies. Having been brought up by the Krittiktis, he is called Kartikeya, or Shunmatura, the son of six mothers ; and, from the circumstances adverted to, he bears also the names of Gangeya, the son of the Ganges ; Sarahhu, reared in Sara grass; Shanmukha, the god with the six faces, etc. One of his common appellations is Kumdni, youthful, since he is generally represented as a fine youth; and, as he is riding on a peacock, he receives sometimes the epithet of Sikhiruhana, or "the god whose vehicle is the peacock." — Chambers, Cyclop, s. v.
Kasiniir, St., prince of Poland, noted in the aimals of the lloman Catholic Church for his great piety and asceticism, born in October, 1458, took no unimportant part in the efforts of the royal house of Poland to secure the throne of Hungary. Quite inconsistently with his saintly profession, he marched at the head of a large army towards the borders of Hungary in 1471. On his return, after the declaration of pope Sixtus IV in favor of the deposed king of Hungary', Kasimir practised even greater austerity than before, and died March 4, HS;;, at AViliia, in Lithuania. Kasiniir was canonized in 1522 by pope Leo X, and he is looked upon as the patjrou saint of Poland. See Pol^vi«u.
Kaspi. See Ibx-Caspi.
Katan. See Hakk^vtan.
Katerkamp, Joiiaxn Theodor Hermann, an eminent Koman Catholic theologian, was born at Och- trup, near Minister, Germany, Jan. 17, 17G4; studied theology at IMunster, and subsequently (1809) became professor of Church History in his alma mater. He had been ordained priest in 1787, and in 1823 he was ap- pointed canon, and in 1831 dean of the cathedral at ^linistcr. He died Jidy 8, 1834. Katerkamp's princi- pal work is his Kirchenyesch. (of which the introduction was published in 1819; and live volumes, bringing the work down to the second Crusade, from 1823-34, 8vo). He also wrote Ueher d. chrhtl. Lehen u. d. Geist d. gottes- dienstl. Versainmlunrjen (jMi'inster, 1830, 8vo): — Denk- tnirdigkeiten aus d.Leben d.FUrstin Galiczin (ibid. 1828; 2d ed. 1838). See Herzog, Real-Encyklopddie, vii, 459 ; Wetzer mid Welte, Kircken-Lex. xii, (537.
Katharinus, Ajibrosius. See Catharixus.
Kathenotheism ((caS' tvog &i6c, each one a god) is a term devised by Prof. J\Iax iNIuller {Mg Vtda, i, 164, 460) to designate the doctrine of tlivine unity in diver- sity as unfolded in the sacred writings of tlie Hindus. He rejects the term jjolytheism on the ground that the Hindus, in their worship, ever ascribe to one god the at- tributes of all the others. Thus in one hj-mn, ascribed to Mann, the poet saj's, "Among you, O gods, there is none that is small, none that is young ; you are all great in deed." . . . "And what more coidd human language achieve," asks tlie professor, " in trying to express the idea of a divine aad supreme power? . . . This is surely not what is commonlj- understood by polj'theism. Yet it would be equally wrong to call it monotheism. If we must have a name for it, I should call it KatJienotJteism" (Chips, i, 28). See also Tyler, Primitice Culture (Loud. 1871, 2 vols. 8vo), ii, 321. (J. H.W.)
Elathisniata [Ka^iapara, sittings) is a name which, in the early Church, according to Suicer, was applied to certain parts of holy Scripture, because, during the read- ing of them, the people sat. Other portions of Scripture were entitled araaHQ (standings), because, during the reading of them, the people stood. It was usual m the early Church for all worshippers to stand during the reading of the gospels and the singing of the psalms.
Katona, Emeric, of Abaujvar, a Hungarian Prot- estant controversialist, was born at Uifalon in 1572. He became rector of the college of Szepsi in 1593, but re- signed in 1595 to study theology at "Wittenberg and Heidelberg for two years and a half, and then returned to his country. He became successively rector of Pa- tak (in 1599), preacher at the court of George Ea- goczi, prince of Transylvania, pastor of Szepsi, Goenc- ziu, and Karextur, and died Oct. 22, 1610. He wrote De Libera Arbitrio, contra theses Andrece Saroji ; Anti- papismus ; Tractatus de Patrum, conciliontm et tradi- tionum Aitctoritate cii'ca Jidel dogmata, cult^ts idem mo- resque vivendi (Francfort, 1611, 8vo, with a Life of the author by Pareits). See Cz^^tt^nger, Specimen llunga- rice Literatw, p. 199; Horanyi, Nova Memoria llunga- ronim, ii, 304.
Katon Moed. See Talmud.
Kat'tath (lleb. Kattath', n^Jp, small, for ^VJ^^; Sept. Karra5- v. r. KaravaS;), one of the cities of Zeb- ulon, mentioned first in a list of towns apparently along the southern border from Slount Tabor westerly (Josh. xix, 15) ; and (notwithstanding the slight difference in radicals) ]irobably the same with the Kartaii (q, v.) of Josh, xxi, 34; perhaps also with Kiti:on (Judg. i, 30). Schwarz (Palest, p. 172), by a tortuous derivation through the Talmud, seeks to identify it witli Cana of Galilee.
Katyayana is a name of great distinction in the histoni' of the literature of India, especially the ritual and grammatical literature of the ]'rahniauical Hindus, which has been greatly enriched by a writer or writers
KAUTZ
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KEBLAH
of that name. Katyayana is also the name of several of the chief disciples of the Buddha Sakyamuni.
Kautz, Jacob, an eminent German theologian) 'prominent in the Anabaptist movement of the 16th century, was born at Bockenheim, Hesse Cassel, about 1500. He was a preacher at Worms when, in 1527, he identified himself with the Denk-Hetzer movement in forming a strong opposition against infant baptism. Previously to this time, Kautz had estranged him- self from the Lutheran reformers by his anti-Trini- tarian heresies ; now he openly broke with them, and warmly welcomed the Strasburg preachers. See Ana- baptists. He published seven theses in defence of his peculiar views (corap. Arnold, Ketzerhistorie, i, 63), and for the day of Pentecost invited the Lutheran ministers to pulilic disputation. Although yet a j'ouug man, he had already obtained great celebrity as a public speaker, and no doubt took this course in order to increase the number of his followers. But the theses of Kautz were so decidedly opposed to Lutheran christology and dog- mas that the authorities interfered, incarcerated him, and finally obliged him to quit "Worms. Wandering about from place to place, we find him in July at Augs- burg, later at Rothenburg, and in 1528 finally at Stras- burg. Here he succeeded for a time in preaching his heretical doctrines, but in 1529, so great had his fanati- cal excesses become, that the city authorities felt obliged to interfere, and he was arrested and compelled to leave the city. After losing sight of him for a time, we find him in 1532 again knocking at the gates of the city of Strasburg, and vainlj' seeking admission. From this time all traces of him are lost, and neither the time nor the place of his death is known. Kautz was qiute inti- mate with Capito, the eminent coadjutor of the Reform- ers QicolampacUus and Buccr, and at one time it was even asserted by the Anabaptists that he had succeeded in winning him to their side. Capito, however, does not deserve this reproach. On the contrary, he did all in his power to restrain Kautz in his fanaticism. See Trechsel, Antitrinitarier, i, 13 sq. ; Keim, in the Jahrh. f. dmtsche Theol. i, 2, 271 S(i. ; Stud, nml Krif. 1841, p. 1080 sq. See aLso Denk ; Hktzer. (J. H. W.)
Kay, .James, a Unitarian minister, was born at Heap Fold, in Lancashire, England, June 21, 1777, and was reared in the Church of England. At the age of seven- teen, however, he became a dissenter, and at once pre- pared for the ministry. In 1799 he was settled over a Calvinistic congregation in Kendal, Westmoreland, but he resigned this charge in 1810, and, with about one third of his congregation, joined the Unitarians, and two years later became pastor of a Unitarian church at Hindley, Lancashire. In 1821 he emigrated to this country, but never again took active work. He died Sept. 22, 1817, at Trout Run, I'a. " He fell asleep with the accents of a devout faith on his lips, and, we doubt not, with the trustful spirit of a disciple in his heart." — Christian Examiner, 1848, p. 157.
Kaye, John (1), D.D., an English divine, was bom at Hammersmith, London, in 1783, and was educated at Christ's College, Cambridge (graduated in 1804 with high honor and distinction). In 1814 he was elected master of his college, and afterwards filled the ofiice of vice-chancellor. In 1816 he was chosen regius pro- fessor of divinity, and in 1820 became bishop of Bristol; was translated to Lincoln in 1827, and died in 1853. Be- sides his professional labors, Kaye did a great deal of literary work. Many of his writings are of special value. Characterized as they are bj' clearness and precision, by accuracy and fairness, combined with the necessary flexibihty, no thinking mind can fail to be enriched by them. Ilis principal writings are : The Ecdedasticnl Ilistonj of the 2d and 3(1 Centuries, illustrated from the Writings of Tertullian (Camb. 2d ed. 1826, 8vo ; 3d ed. 1845): — SonK Account of the Writings and Opinions of Justin Martyr (Lond. 2d ed. 1836, 8vo; 3d ed. 1853) :— A Charge delivered at the primary Visitation in 1828
(Camb. 1828, 8vo) : — A Charge to the Clergy, delivered at the triennial Visitation in 1843 (London, 1843, 8vo). He also published some anonymous Remarks on Dr. Wise- man\s Lectures, and a llejily to the Travels of an Irish Gentleman (a Roman Catholic polemical work). See Allibone, Diet, of A iithors, s. v. ; London Gentleman's Magazine, 1853 (April, ]\Iay, and August). (J. L. S.)
Kaye, John (2). See C^uus.
Kayits. See Fruit.
Kazin. See Ittaii-kazix.
Keach, Benjamin, an eminent English Baptist di- vine, was born at Stokehaman, Buckinghamshire, Feb. 29, 1640. He does not appear to have followed any reg- ular course of study; his parents were poor, and could not aid him in a collegiate education. He paid par- ticular attention to the Scriptiu-es. In 1658 he be- came a preacher, and in 1668 was chosen pastor of a congregation in Southwark, of which he had for three years previously been a member. After the Restoration he suffered in common with all nonconformists, and tted from the country, where the persecutions were unbear- able, to the metropolis. Here he became pastor of a small society, which met in a private house in Tooley Street. Successful as a minister, he soon moved his fast-increasing flock (which numbered at one time over lOOO) to a large new chiu-ch in Horsley Down, South- wark. He died in 1704. Keach belonged to the Par- ticular or Calvinistic Baptists, and was considered a man of great ]jiety and learning. His principal Avorks are, Tropologia, or Key, to open Scripture Metaphors (Lond. 1682 ; best edition 1779, fol. — very scarce ; and reprinted in 1856, 8vo) : — The Marrow of true Justification, or Justification without Works (Lond. 1692, 4to) : — The Axe laid to the Root, or one more Blow at the Foundation of Infant Baptism and Church-membership (Loudon, 1693, 4to): — Light broke forth in Wales (Lond. 1696, 8vo; an answer to INIr. .Tames Owen's book, entitled Children's Baptismfroni Heaven') : — The Display of glorious Grace, in 14 Sermons [on Isa. liv, 10] (Lond. 1098, 8vo) : — Gos- pel Mysteries Unveiled, or an Exposition of all the Par- ables, etc. (Lond. 1701 , fol. ; 1856, royal 8vo. " ^Mingled with unquestioned reverence for the divine Word, and much good material of which the judicious student may avail himself with advantage, there is a large amount of fanciful exposition and of unwise spiritualizing" [Kit- to]) : — A Golden Mine opened, or the glory of God's i-ick Grace displayed in the Mediator, etc. (Lond. 1694, 4to) : — The French Impostor delected, or Zach. Ilousel tryed by the Word of God, etc. (Lond. 1703, 12mo) : — Believer's Baptism, wherein the chief arguments for infant bap- tism are collected and combated (London, 1705, 8vo) : — Travels of True Godliness, and Travels of Ungodliness, after the manner of Bunyan's (often reprinted) ; also ^vith Notes and Memoirs of the author, by the Rev. Howard Malcolm (N. Y. 1831, 18mo) : — Exposition of the Para- bles (Lond. 1704, fol.). Keach also figured in his day as a hymnologist, but his sacred songs were rather medi- ocre. See Stoughton, Eccles. History of Engl, ii, 465 sq. ; Crosby, Hist, of the Baptists ; Wilson, Hist, of Dissent in g Chwches ; AlVihone, Diet. Engl, and American Authors, s. V. ; Kitto, Cyclop). Bibl. Lit. s, v, (J. H. W.)
Keating, Geoffrey, an Irish divine and historian, flourished in the early jiart of the 17tli century (died about 1625, or somewhat later). He is noted as the au- thor of a general history of Ireland, in which tlie eccle- siastical history of that country is treated in detail. It was translated into English by Dermot O'Connor (Lon- don, 1728, fol. ; Westm. 1726, fol. ; 1738, fol. ; Dubl. 1809, 2 vols. 8vo; 1811, 8vo). — Allibone, Dictionary of Au- thors, s. V.
Keblah is a term by which the Mohammedans des- ignate the direction towards which they are command- ed to turn their faces in their devotions. ''At first," says Sale (Koran, p. 17), " ^lohammed and his follow- ers observed no particular rite in turning their faces to- wanls any certain place or quarter of the world when
KEBLE
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KECKERMANN
they prayof], it being declared to be perfectly indiffer- ent. Afterwards, when the pro[)het Hed to jNIedina, he directed them to turn towards the temple of Jerusalem [probably to ingratiate himself with the Jews], which continued to be their Keblah for six or seven months; but, either finding tlie Jews too intractable, or despair- ing of otherwise gaining the pagan Arabs, who coidd not forget their respect to the temple of Mecca, he ordered that praj-ers for the future should be tt)wards the last. This change was made in the second year of the Hegira, and occasioned many to fall from him, taking offence at his inconstancy." See Kaaba.
Keble, Johx, " the sweetest and most Christian poet of modern days," was bora in Fairford, in Gloucester- shire, April 25, 1792. His father was fellow of Corpus Christi College, and for fifty years vicar of Coin, St^^Vl- vins, and lived until his ninetieth year. His mother was the daughter of a clergyman. Thus on both sides he came of a pastoral stock ; and it is worthy of note that his only surviving brother, Thomas, like himself became a clergyman (rector of Bisley), that that broth- er's sou also tooli orders, and that Mr. Keble himself, like his father, married a clergyman's daughter. Young Keble was prepared for college by his father, and en- tered the University of Oxford, and there greatly distin- guished himself by a remai-kable display of talent and application. When only eighteen, fidl four years be- low the customary age for graduating, John Keble won the highest intellectual rank the universitj- can bestow, that of a " double-first classman," his name appearing in the first class of classics as well as in the first class of mathematics. This distinction had never been achieved up to tliat time except in the case of Robert Peel. April 20, 1811, wanting a few daj'S of the completion of his nineteenth year, he was elected probationer fellow of Oriel, and took his place at the high table, and in the senior common room of that celebrated college. Whate- ly entered it with him, and these two were the duum- viri to whom all paid an almost obs quious deference. In 1812 he won the prizes for both the bachelors' essays — the English on Translation from Dead Languages, the Latin a comparison of Xenophon and Julius C;Esar as Military Chroniclers. In the annals of Corpus twice only has such a triumph been won, one instance that of young Keble, and the other no less a man than Henry Hart iMilman, the late celebrated dean of St. Paul's Ca- thedral. At the unprecedented age of twenty-two — in- deed, some months short of it — he was appointed by the University of Oxford one of its public examiners. Thus did Keble attain a success which w-e believe has never been equalled ft)r its precocious ability. In 1815 he was ordained deacon, the following year priest, and soon af- ter left the university, and never again permanently re- sided there. lie became his father's curate, and lived with him in tliat capacity nearly twenty years. He turned aside from the numerous paths of ambition which were open to him, and gave himself to parochial work as the employment of his life. In 1835 Keble's father died. He was now offered and accepted the vicarage of Hurs- ley, and married. His parish was obscure, thirty miles from Oxford. There was not, it is said, a single culti- vated family in his charge, so that his labors were alto- gether among the humbler and poorer classes, but under his indefatigable ministrations it became one of the model parishes of England. It is, however, as the poet of the "Christian Year" and the "Lyra Innocentium" that Keble will be most widely and permanently known. The former was published in 1827. It is probaVtle that most of the imem was written at Fairford. Its success was certainly most remarkable. IMore than one hun- dred editions have been sold. Of course Keble might have realized a fortune from the sale of this extraordi- nary book; lint in this, as in evcrj'thingelse, he showed his disintercste(hiess. When, in 1835, Keble came to Hursley, he found a church not at all to his mind. It is descriljcd as a i)laiii and anything but beautiful build- ing of Mint and rubble. He at once determined to have
a new one built, and, in order to carrj' out his project, he employed the profits of the many editions of The Christian Year; and when the building was finished, his friends, in token of their regard for him, filled all the" windows with stained glass. On Friday, the Cth of April, 1800, he was buried in the church-yard of Hurs- ley, where he had officiated as minister for nearly thirty years. It was on the <